How do you explain a shift in the historical trajectory of the Muslim world from a period of ascendancy between the fifteenth and the seventeenth century to a period of decline and European domination from the eighteenth century on?
Introduction
History offers us a wide variance and mosaic of human activity. The human civilization has emerged from simple hunting and gathering techniques for basic survival to an era of increasingly complex and modern machinery and technology. This journey of man through history has unravelled a series of struggles and has witnessed the rise and fall of different civilizations and empires. This struggle has been incessant and is etched with diversity in cultural forms across the globe. The creative synthesis in the rise of every new empire unfolds and unleashes profound ideas that have laid the foundation for that empire. The ideas and innovations flourish to their excellence and, their glory, along with growth spread across the lands. When these ideas are enforced upon another pre existing civilization, the system of justice falters and fails. This ultimately leads to mutiny and war and thus marks the beginning of yet another civilization. Thus civilizations can rise and gradually decay. This cycle has been continuous and ceaseless and hence the world has witnessed the rise and fall of various empires which have engraved and imprinted their influence across the globe.
The rise of the Islamic Empire had a significant impact over the world. The splendour and magnificence of the Islamic civilization traversed along for several centuries. During this era, a number of Muslim empires rose and receded. The Muslim world reached its zenith during the Middle Ages and this era bore a witness to some of the most pronounced contributions in various fields and is hence termed as the Islamic Golden Age. The three most prominent Muslim empires that ruled between the 15th century and 17th century are the Ottoman Empire, The Safavid Empire and the Moghal Empire.
The Ottoman Empire
The rise of the Ottoman Empire was one of the most distinguishable and pronounced periods during the era of the Muslim world. The Ottoman Empire spanned over a wide area ranging from Middle East and Eastern Europe to the Balkan regions and North Africa. The Ottoman Empire reached its zenith between the 16th and 17th centuries. The array of conquests and expansion of the Ottoman Empire witnessed a predominant conversion into Islam in the regions conquered.
The conquest of Constantinople (renamed as Istanbul), the capital of the Byzantine Empire, by the Ottoman Turks in 1453 A.D fuelled their imperial ambitions for further expansion of their empire. The subsequent conquests of Belgrade from the Hungarians and the entire Byzantine regions, one of the most prominent Christian cities, by the Muslim power triggered new activities as a compensation for the lost territories. Suleiman the Magnificent played a pioneer role in these conquests. He expanded the empire into the Middle East and accomplished several naval conquests. These naval attacks followed by a string of victories affected the trade route established by the Europeans in the Mediterranean region. This provoked a counterattack from the Europeans which proved successful for them and thus they regained control over the Mediterranean region.
The Ottoman Empire dominated, controlled and moulded the regions they ruled over in accordance to their norms and beliefs. But, due to an unorthodox system of succession and political instability, the empire got decentralized. Decentralization, corrupt officials, high taxes on peasants and declining power of women led to several rebellions. Since the Ottoman Empire did not patronize scientific thought and reasoning, they were no match to the rising European powers who benefited a great deal with respect to scientific revolution at the expense of the empire. Subsequent wars with the Europeans forced the Ottomans to surrender all the territories captured by them.
The Safavid Empire
Yet another Muslim power that rose to power in Persia was the Safavid Empire. The ruler was a staunch Shia Muslim and this led to religious conflicts and internal strife between the two Muslim sects. The Safavids also used primitive and conventional military techniques. Hence, they were unable to cope with the foreign invasions. Thus, they lost their empire to the Afghan invaders.
The Moghal Empire
Equivalent to the dominance of Ottoman Turks was the rise of the Moghal Empire in India. With their arrival into the northern part of India in 1526, the Moghal Empire climaxed between the 16th and 17th centuries. The empire expanded during the reign of Akbar the Great and Aurangzeb. Unlike the Ottomans and the Safavids, most of the Moghal rulers were tolerant towards the other religions. The Moghal era witnessed the rule of some of the most efficient emperors and saw tremendous contributions in the fields of art, architecture and literature. The Islamic culture had enrooted itself deep into the Indian soil. However, due to corrupt bureaucracy, extravagant and luxurious life of the rulers and political instability in the empire, it began to decline in the 18th Century. The advent of the Europeans into India for reasons of trade and their eventual interference into the political issues gave them an upper hand over the conflicting rulers. The power of the British in India grew rapidly with the increasing political instability under the Moghal rulers. The Moghal rule finally collapsed in the mid 18th century and this marked the beginning of an imperial British rule in India until 1947.
Developments in the West and dawn of the European power
The emergence of the fifteenth century marked the beginning for the Renaissance period in Europe. Innumerable writings of Islamic philosophers and scientists were translated into native European languages. Mass publication of these works was a reason for the widespread of education in Europe. Europe was awakening and the stronghold of reformation began in the sixteenth century. The discovery of new sea routes and the improvements in naval technologies heralded the age of discovery and exploration and this fetched riches and helped the Europeans acquire new skills. The European advent and subsequent colonization of the Muslim lands began on the onset of the eighteenth century. With this century rising as the Age of Reason, freedom of thought and use of science and technology, the stronghold of the beliefs of the church were pushed back. This unleashed explorations in various branches of science and technology and also set the beginning of colonial expansion. The technology used for warfare and the sophisticated machinery of the Europeans remained unmatched. Improvement in military technology which included the usage of gunpowder and guns played a pivotal role in the creation of modern and more sophisticated weaponry in contrast to the conventional war techniques and weaponry used by the Muslim rulers. With expansion of territories overseas and with the concept of global economy, the imperial regions of Western Europe began to rise to power. Laws imposed by the existing rulers favoured the trade to these European countries and thus, these countries became wealthier. Forging the military advantage over other civilizations, the Europeans took a plunge into world dominance.
Conclusion
The weakness in Islamic societies was one of the prime reasons for the ascendance of the Europeans. The emphasis laid by the Europeans on developments in science and technology definitely played a predominant role in the downfall of the Islamic Empires. Thus, the world witnessed a trajectory shift from the Muslim World between the fifteenth century and the seventeenth century to an era of European colonialism and dominance from the eighteenth century onwards.
References
Ferguson, N. (2011). Civilization: the West and the Rest. New York, Penguin.
Ruthven, M. (2004). Historical Atlas of Islam. Harvard University Press.
Richards, J. F. (1995). The Mughal Empire (Vol. 5). Cambridge University Press.
Sicker, Martin (2000). The Islamic World in Ascendancy: From the Arab Conquests to the Siege of Vienna. Praeger.
Wittek, P. (2013). Rise of the Ottoman Empire. Routledge.
