The problem of double standards regarding women's rights and opportunities in terms of urban space has a very long history. Since ancient times to the present time, this problem has had many manifestations. Any appearance of women in public in terms of urban space caused various reactions in different periods. More recently, this issue, along with the development of legal and personal relations, began to attract a lot of attention. Thus, its solution lies in a deep analysis of behavioral and social stereotypes. In addition, the question of domestication of urban space involves many problems of gender nature, making it quite difficult and controversial. Urban space is a particular social environment that provides a certain impact on different social groups. However, the problem of domestication of the urban environment has different manifestations in a form of planning and creating social strategies to address the threats to vulnerable members of society.
Methodology
Both quantitative and qualitative research methods were equally used in this paper. It is necessary to take into account many related problems in order to address the issues of urban space domestication more broadly. In addition to the sources cited, a large number of other sources were used to consider this issue from other points of view or from a historical perspective. Therefore, the mixed type of research methods made it possible to create an informative and high-quality work, which examines the question of the origin, development and consequences of social problems within the urban space more particularly.
The Main Social Issues in the Planning of Urban Space
The urban environment can potentially be better adapted to the everyday experiences of different groups of people allowing for experience of men and women with diverse life paths. The focusing on the experience indicates that the "traditional" way of life of women, including their responsibility for reproductive function, should be taken into account in the planning of the urban environment (Ainley 46). Of course, this does not necessarily mean that society is committed to the implementation of gender differences between productive and reproductive activities. For instance, Ainley believes that "when it comes to the discussion of the gender aspects, this approach can be easily reduced to the needs of some of the biological characteristics of men or women" (47). Only some biological differences, such as differences in physical strength, are important for planning and should be taken into account, for example, when discussing the issues of safety and security in public space. Therefore, "interest in the status of women throughout the world has resulted in, amongst other things, a steady growth in studies addressed to analysing and highlighting the ‘gender biased’ nature of housing and urban planning legislation (Njoh 1).
For the modern society, the concept of risk in the urban space becomes crucial, because people are actively developing in terms of technological progress. In today's society, it is possible to describe "any activity in any space in terms of risk" and "assess its degree of riskiness in terms of possible outcomes" (Fenster 22). Urban space is also filled with risks; it constantly causes them, creating a risk situation for women's, children's, and other social groups. A woman constantly risks falling into any adverse event in terms of a city life. In the modern sense, "risk" is defined as "the probability of damage or loss" (Fenster 22). The advanced interpretation of risk is related to the concept of "uncertainty, inability to accurately predict the development of events, both in the subjective dimension and the objective existence" (Ainley 19). These events have both the positive and negative connotation; people still cannot predict a possible success or a fatality. Based on the multiple definitions, risk can be interpreted as an objective and knowable fact, which can be measured independently of the processes of social and cultural environment.
According to Ainley, buildings, architecture, design, and access to public transport affect the existing "residents of movement, access to services, employment, feeling of security, self-expression, maintaining privacy, and generally create a high-quality living conditions" in the most basic way (51). Therefore, any improvement of the design and layout of buildings, as well as improvements in urban public and green spaces, public transport, railway stations and lighting will help to ensure that people feel safe and will help to achieve a more sustainable and inclusive mobility. In the field of architecture of the past, urban planning has to do mainly with the structure of cities, indicating the functional areas and shaping the "urban morphology" (Ainley 53).
As mentioned earlier, the problem of urban space encompasses gender space. It is not surprising, as women, men, and children use and experience the urban environment in different ways. According to the today's gender roles, women still bear the greatest responsibility for the so-called "reproductive activities such as childcare, care for the elderly, and household chores", i.e. activities that are often limited to the private sphere (Hayden 211). "The implicit assumption has been that either respectable women (and children) had the same urban experiences as men when they were with men, or else that women (and children) had no urban experiences, since their place were in the home or other segregated spaces" (Hayden 211). There should be the question of the formation of the future relations between men and women, as well as issues related to women staying in city space among the issues that are solved by planners. It is necessary to raise awareness of various aspects of everyday life and experience the city, rather than focus on "needs" in order to find answers to such questions. The reference to the needs suggests that the differences between men and women will remain unchanged in the future, while "the emphasis of the everyday life experience indicates that the future can be changed" (Fenster 27). Spaces and structures inevitably have a political character, and methods for their construction have consequences for how people of different genders and professions interact with them. Therefore, a "focus on a single strand is not intended to overshadow other readings of the sexed city, but adds another layer to the meanings of its diverse gendered spaces and their occupants" (Ainley 66).
Different types of spaces are also used in various ways, and they can begin to be a specific value and experience for social groups. It is important to keep in mind these factors in the creation and development of architectural projects, as "restricting access to space has been, as Dolores Hayden says, ‘one of the consistent ways to limit the economic and political rights of groups’" (Ainley 63). Some problems can be accurately tracked - such as the fact that certain public places are far less safe for women than for men because of their design. That is the reason why "an important tactic that women adopted to negotiate a public presence was to work from home" (Ainley 67). Other problems may be more subtle and unobtrusive; for example, location of certain structures may affect the availability of work places, kindergartens, as well as the sphere of consumption and services capabilities. According to Ainley, "from the ‘homes for heroes’ postwar housing design based around the stringent gender-role stereotyping of woman as housewife and man as full-time wage earner (63-63). Despite the recent advances in the field of women's rights and gender equality in much of the world, gender continues to play an important role in "explaining the dynamics of travel, housing and the labor market", which entails serious consequences for the practice of planning (Hayden 223). Gender issues related to architectural planning and design are inextricably linked to human rights issues such as employment, women's rights, equality, security, freedom of movement, and freedom of expression. "And they do attempt to rebuild spatial connections between old and young, black and white, male and female" (Hayden 224).
Architecture as a discipline and field of research has long been engaged in duality, which echoes with the common stereotypes of gender characteristics (one can say about some buildings, for example, that they embody the "male / practical" or "decorative / feminine" features) (Fenster 28). From a more practical point of view, it means that constructions and projects are far from easy to neutral, decorative or functional, as they are imbued with social meaning and interpretation of human interaction, which can be analyzed through the prism of Feminism and by taking into account a gender perspective: "urban woodlands, while highly valued and fiercely protected, do not always offer a site for easy enjoyment and recreation" (Ainley 114). This is important because there is a need to escape from a common understanding of architectural design as "neutral" areas which are inherent in objective values.
A number of researchers are concerned about the lack of recognition of "group differences," arguing that the inequality in the distribution is the result of "social structures, cultural attitudes, and institutional contexts", thus pointing to the need to address social inequality and income inequality of men and women (Fenster 33). It is important to stress that migrants, children, women, and other groups are faced with problems related to the distribution of knowledge and resources for the planning and architectural knowledge in a disproportionate extent. Hayden explains this fact, claiming, "several geographers have established that men are most often shown doing active things, posed in the great outdoors; women are shown in reflective postures responding to male demands in interior spaces" (217). In addition, many researchers recognize that the equitable distribution creates problems for social justice; but moreover, a "model of justice should focus on the elimination of institutional oppression and domination", in particular, in view of those for whom the "difference" is a constant source of inequality (Ainley 116). These unresolved problems are evident in the built environment, as well as in mobility opportunities and access to services in many cities around the world. Hayden summarizes, "for six decades the material feminists expounded one powerful idea: that women must create feminist homes with socialized housework and child care before they could become truly equal members of society" (3). It is crucial to pay attention to the issue of advertising and censorship in the public space, which give rise to many gender problems. Hayden cites as an example various advertisements with a pronounced pornographic subtext. People pass near such ads every day. "Their journey has taken them through an urban landscape filled with images of men as sexual aggressors and women as submissive sexual objects" (Hayden 221). The problem of sexism is very common in everyday life, and it also requires certain decisions such as possession of equal rights in all kinds of social scenes.
Conclusions
The main problems associated with the planning of the urban space affect almost all social spheres, as well as all social groups. Urban environment and everything that is a part of it have a rather significant impact on human perception and even forms it. Public media is a special place where everyone feels differently. It is necessary to dwell on the issue of gender and social justice. This study contributes to the better understanding of the problems encountered in the urban space, which makes it possible to find solutions for most of them.
Works Cited
Ainley, Rosa. New Frontiers of Space, Bodies and Gender. London, US: Routledge, 2002. ProQuest ebrary. Web. 29 March 2016.
Fenster, Tovi. "Identity Issues And Local Governance: Women's Everyday Life In The City." Social Identities 11.1 (2005): 21-36. Academic Search Complete. Web. 29 Mar. 2016.
Hayden, Dolores. Redesigning the American Dream: The Future of Housing, Work, and Family Life. New York: Norton, 2002. Print.
Njoh, Ambe J. "Urban Planning, Housing And The Socio-Economic Development Of Women In A Developing Country." Planning Perspectives 13.1 (1998): 1-21. Business Source Complete. Web. 29 Mar. 2016.
