Abstract
Profound education is the basis for the successful career development and personal growth of any individual. Many scholars are trying to give an answer to the question of what makes the learning process more effective. Different aspects of learning theory provide answers to some of these questions. Theories of learning can be grouped into following three categories: behaviorist learning theories, cognitivist learning theories, and constructivist learning theories. Many researchers pay much attention to the process of scaffolding that is actively discussed as a significant element of learning process. The researcher Albert Bandura has devoted a number of his scientific works to the social learning approach that foresees that individuals can learn a large quantity of information in the society, e.g. using different models. In general, all the above-mentioned aspects of learning theory are devoted to the understanding of the learning process’s peculiarities in order to design the ways of studies’ facilitation for students.
Keywords: learning theory, cognitivist approach, behaviorism approach, constructivism approach, scaffolding, social learning approach
Learning Theory
Researchers are constantly trying to identify the ways of helping students to learn the material better. During the process of investigation, it was defined that people learn in different ways, time, methods, etc. However, teachers usually have to work with the groups of individuals and the process of instruction should be designed to address each student. Therefore, it is very important to understand how individuals learn, what influences learning, which steps improve understanding, and etc. This Literature Review is devoted to different aspects of learning theory and its relation to the effective studies.
Instructional Design
Instruction means anything that can be done in order to make the process of learning easier (Reigeluth and Carr-Chellman, 2009, p. 4). Recently in the literature a distinction has been made between “construction” and “instruction” stating that instruction is done necessarily to learners (when they are passive), while construction is performed by learners (they are active). The idea of constructivism is that individuals can learn only by their own knowledge constructing, that the process of learning needs active material manipulation and cannot exist passively. Thus, in case instruction causes learning process, it has to cause also construction. In fact, instruction does not have any meaning in case it does not lead to the process of construction. For this reason, Reigeluth and Carr-Chellman (2009) define the term “instruction” as any actions that are performed in order to facilitate learning for students. Instruction includes self-instruction and methods of constructivism, together with more traditional instruction views, e.g. direct instruction and lecture (Reigeluth and Carr-Chellman, 2009, p. 7).
Theory of Instructional Design
Theory of instructional design is a design theories set that pertain to different instruction’s aspects. As such, these aspects may include:
the way that the instruction has to be performed that could be named DT (instructional event design theory), or DT program of instruction, or DT product of instruction;
what the gathering information process for making instructional decisions should be like that could be named DT instructional-analysis;
how the instructional plans creating process has to look like that could be named DT of instructional-planning;
how the process of instructional resources creating has to look like that could be named DT of instructional-building;
how the process of instruction implementation preparing should look like that could be named DT of instructional-implementation;
how the process of instruction evaluating should look like (formative and summative) that could be named DT of instructional-evaluation (Reigeluth and Carr-Chellman, 2009, p. 8).
Learning Theory
During the last century, educational researchers and psychologists have created numerous theories in order to understand how people acquire, deploy and organize knowledge and skills. Learning theories can be organized into three main categories:
Behaviorist learning theories
Cognitivist learning theories
Constructivist learning theories (6)
Cognitivist Approach
Cognitivism is based on the process of thought behind the individual’s behavior. According to Mergel (1998), behavioral changes are observed, and utilized as determinants as to what is taking place inside the mind of the learner.
Theorists of cognitive approach recognize that a great deal of learning foresees associations appeared through repetition and contiguity. The researchers acknowledge also the reinforcement’s importance, even though they emphasize its role in giving feedback regarding the responses’ correctness over its motivating role (Mergel, 1998).
According to Baruque (2003), the perspective of behaviorism exposes an external focus, but the one of cognitivism exposes an internal one. The process of learning is presented as a shift in knowledge available in the individual’s memory. For this reason, the expert in instruction is challenged with new information organizing for presentation, thoroughly linking previous knowledge to new information and utilizing different techniques to support and guide the student’s mental processes (Baruque, 2003, p. 2).
Main Cognitive Theory’s Concepts
Schema that means structure of internal knowledge. Received new knowledge is compared to cognitive structures that already exist and called “schema”. It can be combined, altered or extended to accept newly received information;
Three-Stage Model of Information Processing: first input goes to a sensory register, later it is short-term memory processed, and then it is transferred for retrieval and storage to long-term memory;
Sensory Register gets senses input that last from less than 1-4 seconds and after this disappears by replacement or decay. Large amount of the information never gets to the short term memory; however, all information is controlled at some level and if necessary acted upon;
STM (Short-Term Memory): sensory information input that is interesting or important is transferred to the STM from the sensory register. The memory may be stored here for around 20 seconds or more in case repeatedly rehearsed. Such memory can keep up to 7 (± 2 items);
LTM (Long-Term Memory and Storage) keeps information for long term use from STM. This kind of memory’s capacity is unlimited. Materials are sometimes forced into LTM over learning and by rote memorization;
Meaningful Effects. Information that is meaningful is usually easier to remember and learn. In case a learner associates prior schema with relatively meaningless information, it will retain easier;
Effects of Serial Position. Usually it is easier to remember things from the end or beginning of a list, in comparison with the ones in the middle of it;
Effects of Practice. Rehearsing or practicing contributes to retention. With the help of distributing practices the student associates the learning staff with several different contexts;
Effects of Transfer. The prior learning effects on learning new material or tasks.
Effects of Interference take place in case prior studies interferes with the new material learning;
Effects of Organization. In case a student categorizes input (e.g. grocery list), it becomes easier to learn it;
Processing Effects Levels. Speaking can be processed at a sensory low-level analysis (their physical features) to semantic high-level analysis (the one of their meaning). In case a word is deeply processed, it will be easier to remember it;
Effects that are State Dependent. In case learning occurs within some special context, it may be easier to learn it in association with that context in comparison with a new one;
Mnemonic Effects. This foresees strategies engaged by learners to relatively organize meaningless information into semantic contexts or images that are more meaningful;
Effects of Schema. In case a material does not fit a schema of a person, it may become more complicated for such people to remember it;
Advance Organizers prepare the student for the staff they are going to learn (Mergel, 1998).
Behaviorism Approach
Behaviorism approach is based on certain changes in the individual’s behavior. According to Mergel (1998), it concentrates on a new pattern of behavior being rehearsed until it gets automatic.
Behaviorism considers the mind to be a “black box” in the sense which reacts to the stimulus and may be understood quantitatively, ignoring totally the possibility of processes of thought taking place in the mind. Among the most well-known researchers in the behaviorist theory development were Pavlov, Thorndike, Skinner, and Watson (Mergel, 1998).
The main behavioral perspective focus is on behavior and the external environment influence in shaping the behavior of the individual. Thus, the instructional expert’s primary responsibility is to sequence and determine the contingencies that may assist individuals with learning (Baruque, 2003, p. 2).
Constructivism Approach
Constructivism is based on the idea that all individuals create their unique perspective of the world, involving individual schema and experiences. According to Mergel (1998), this approach focuses on learner’s preparing to solve problems in various situations.
Constructivism researchers suppose that students create their unique reality or interpret it taking into account their experiences’ perceptions; thus, knowledge of the individual is a function of his or her previous mental structures, experiences, and beliefs which are employed to interpret events and objects (Mergel, 1998).
Radical vs. Realistic Construction
Realistic constructivism foresees that cognition is the activity, by which students construct mental structures eventually that match or correspond to external structures available in the surroundings.
Radical constructivism foresees that cognition is used to organize the students’ experiential world and not to study ontological reality (Mergel, 1998).
According to Baruque (2003), the perspective of constructivism sees learning process as a change in the constructed from experiences meaning. The process of learning includes the complex interaction among existing knowledge of students, the problem to be solved and the social context (Baruque, 2003, p. 2).
Scaffolding
The term “scaffolding” is used to describe some support kinds that students receive during their interaction with teachers, parents, etc. as they are achieving new levels, concepts, or skills of understanding. Scaffolding was first used for describing the quality form of the effective intervention of the instructor in the other person’s learning (Maybin, Mercer and Stierer, 1992, p. 22).
Researchers use the term ‘scaffolding’ to show this collaboration or guidance quality. Although the source of it is child psychology, it has become accepted in circles of “language in education” due to its emphasis on the language role and particularly spoken language, in learning of children (Maybin, Mercer and Stierer, 1992, p. 22).
According to Puntambekar and Hübscher (2005), scaffolding is a controlling by adult of those task elements that are beyond the capacity of learner essentially, allowing him to complete and concentrate upon only those parts that correspond to his competence range. The scaffolding’s notion has been linked to Lev Vygotsky (Soviet psychologist) work. Even though Vygotsky did not actually utilize this term, he supposed that learning occurs first at the inter-individual or social level, and stresses the social interactions’ role as being important for cognitive development of the individual. Thus, a student learns with a more capable peer or an adult; and learning happens within the zone of proximal development (ZPD) of the child (Puntambekar and Hübscher, 2005, p. 2).
The most important aspect to successful scaffolding is the shared understanding of the activity’s goal. Another scaffolding’s key element is that the instructor provides relevant support conducting ongoing diagnosis of the current level of child’s understanding (Puntambekar and Hübscher, 2005, p. 3).
One more important aspect is that the support adaptation and ongoing assessment is achieved with the help of the interactive and dialogic nature of scaffolding. The last key aspect of scaffolding is fading the provided to the student support so that the learner is in control now and having learning responsibility (Puntambekar and Hübscher, 2005, p. 3).
According to TURUK (2008), scaffolding has a number of advantages: gives learners clear directions; keeps learners on task; clarifies task purpose; directs learners to right sources; provides assessment to compare with expectations; disappointment and surprise; decreases uncertainty, provides with the momentum; brings efficiency (TURUK, 2008, p. 252).
Taking into account the attempts to provide structure and problematize, Reiser (2004) offers several significant design tensions in scaffolded tools designing:
problematize disciplinary content versus support intuitive strategies;
specificity versus generality;
learners’ control and responsibility versus other constrained choices (Reiser, 2004, p. 297).
Social Learning Approach
Theory of social learning deals with the process of learning that appears in the social context. According to Bandura (1977), this theory suggests that individuals learn from each other, e.g. modeling, imitation, and observational learning. The researcher Albert Bandura is among the leading figures that have developed this approach.
Social Learning Theory’s main principles are as follows:
Individuals can learn by seeing the others behaviors and the results of such behaviors;
The effect of learning may take place without a behavioral change. Researchers-behaviorists state that learning should be observed by a permanent behavioral change; in contrast theorists of social learning state that as individuals can learn alone by observation, their learning may not be shown necessarily in their behavior;
A significant role in the process of learning belongs to cognition. During the recent 30 years theory of social learning has become rather cognitive in its human learning interpretation. Expectations and awareness of future punishments or reinforcements can make a significant influence upon the behaviors exhibited by people;
The theory of social learning can be regarded as a transition bridge between behaviorist theories of learning and theories of cognitive learning.
People can learn (at least partly) numerous behaviors, by modeling. For instance, children can watch reading parents, students can observe the mathematics problems demonstrations, or see a person bravely acting in a fearful conditions. Also aggression may be learned with the help of models. Numerous researches show that children get aggressive if they see violent or aggressive models. Observation and modeling influence moral behavior and moral thinking. It can relate also to moral judgments concerning wrong and right that can among other, develop by means of modeling (Bandura, 1977).
Conclusions
As it can be seen from the above information, learning theories can be subdivided into three main groups: behaviorist, cognitivist, and constructivist learning theories. Each of them has its supporters and opponents. These theories are based on the human psychology. Understanding of these approaches makes possible for teachers and other instructors to design the correct and appropriate approach to any learner or learners’ group. The effort of the scholars is devoted to the facilitation of the learning process for students by understanding its nature and structure. Awareness of students’ psychology (or at least educational psychology) makes a significant contribution to the process of successful learning.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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