Describe scientific explanation in detail. How does it relate to scientific hypothesis and scientific theory?
The term explanation may mean different things, especially in a wider perspective. However, in science, an explanation refers to the answer to a question that have stemmed from curiosity. Curiosity gives rise to questions that call for answers or explanations. Curiosity and inquisitiveness are among the characteristics that drive science to explore knowledge and use it for practical applications. The curiosity to know why the apple has fallen down from a tree has led Newton to wonder and apply the scientific method to arrive at a valid scientific explanation—the Law of gravitation. In short, the explanation that resolves the intricacies or the subtleties of a phenomenon is called a scientific explanation. The information given to make sense of inexplicable or unusual phenomenon or instances, which arouses or excites speculation or interest or attention is a scientific explanation. Moreover, finding the causes or root of certain phenomenon or instances is the basis of many scientific investigations. A scientific explanation is not limited to being precedent to causes, but also to subsequent effects (Carey, 2012).
In order to arrive at accurate and valid scientific explanations, people or researchers often start with a vague or imperfect conception or idea to make sense of data or events. This vague or imperfect explanation given by one scientist for an event or set of data should then be rethought and tested through a series of steps. Furthermore, the vague or imperfect idea that could lead to a scientific explanation is the scientific hypothesis. It is unproven and may pave the way for the development of more concrete conclusions or the Scientific Theory. The explanation put forward to explain something without certain knowledge or proof is called Scientific Hypothesis. Thus, Scientific Hypothesis is tentative and unproven and Scientific Theory is conclusive and proven (Tong, 2003).
How does the claim that two sorts of events are correlated differ from the claim that they are related as cause to effect? What is the difference between a proximate and a remote cause?
The answer to why an event occurred or took place can be referred to as the cause. An identified cause helps us understand certain phenomenon and make interventions (Carey, 2012). For instance, if we know what causes a particular disease, then we can avoid the causal agent and expect to not have the disease. If a bacteria cause a particular infection, then avoidance or getting rid of the bacteria can make us free from its infection.
On the other hand, a correlation describes the relationship between an agent and an event. It may be used to describe the degree by which one agent affects an event (Trochim, 2006). If an event X causes Y which causes Z, then X is the proximate cause of Y and remote cause of Z and Y is the proximate cause of Z. A proximate cause directly causes the effect. If the effect of the cause produces another effect, then the proximate cause becomes the remote cause for the second effect. Thus proximate cause is the direct cause and remote cause is the indirect cause (Carey, 2012). Similarly, if one is correlated to the occurrence of an event then there is some form of a degree only. It is not the only agent at play that causes an event, but contributes to the event. For instance, smoking cigarettes is correlated to poor heart health, but it is not the sole factor at play. One’s lifestyle and the frequency of exercise also factor in and correlate with a poor heart health.
Fully describe the following types of explanations
Cause and effect
In our daily lives, causal explanations are very common. Moreover, the effects are the results of a combination of different types of causes. For example, one can be late for an event because of being delayed by traffic jam. In this case, the effect is lateness and the cause of this is a traffic jam, that is, the lateness was caused by the traffic jam. The effects can also originate from several different causes. For example decline of the economy of a country can be caused by several factors in which each factor is responsible for a certain part of the decline of the economy. Some effects also need not to be associated with a specific causal factor, for example, as much as cigarettes can cause cancer not everyone who smokes cigarettes contracts cancer (Carey, 2012).
Causal mechanism
A causal mechanism, however, can be a number of proximate causes that intercede in between a remote cause. In a practical example, there is a link between smoking cigarettes and contraction of cancer, but not much is known about the physiological process (mechanism) in which agent causing cancer in the cigarettes lead to the abnormal growth of cancer cells in a smoker’s body (Carey, 2012).
Underlying processes
The underlying processes involved in an effect tries to explain the effect in a more analytical manner and at a more basic level. This is unlike the causal mechanism which tries to connect cause and the effect of explaining the intervening cause. Underlying process explanation describes a phenomena at one level and reduce it to other more basic levels (Carey, 2012).
Laws
There are two basic types of laws. One is the rules and regulations that govern our lives in daily basis, which includes not driving while drunk, being told to pay our taxes by certain dates. These types of laws are made and enforced to regulate our behaviors that can bring harm to the people around us and ourselves. They can be replaced from time to time, obeyed and disobeyed. On the other hand, the laws in the scientific perspective are different. These laws cannot be followed by will or broken and cannot be legislated into existence. They are descriptions of our regularities that are found to have happen in our existence. The scientific laws are universal. Example of this is the Newton laws. A few are not universal. The statistical laws allow us to give explanations that have to be carefully justified. Behavioral and social sciences normally make use of the statistical laws in their explanations (Carey, 2012).
Function
A function refers to the relationship that exist between a set of data to another set of data (Roberts, 2012). For example, x as a real number can be related to its square using the following function, that is, x2. Every x is related to its squared value,thus, a function.
Describe Occam’s Razor
Occam’s Razor or the principle of parsimony, which was named after its author, is a principle that may be used to solve problems or analyze situations. When one examines a belief, hope or aspiration, there are many possible hypotheses or imperfect explanations that may arise. The Occam’s Razor may likewise be used to choose among the many hypotheses when problems arise to arrive at a valid conclusion (Carey, 2012). In essence, the Occam’s razor implores one to choose the imperfect explanation or hypothesis that has simpler premises or assumptions. Simple solutions or explanations are among the most logical answers to problems. Too much elaboration that requires too much assumption can often lead to wrongful answers (Hiroshi, 1997). In reference to beliefs, hopes and aspirations one may tend to explain thing that they do or do not do. This is to give a functional explanation because it gives an explanation in reference to the purpose it fulfills. Thus, giving explanations of our behavior by the reference of what we might achieve is giving a functional explanation. The functional explanation is not limited to human behaviors. The functional behaviors mostly make some evident reference to what is being explained. Occam’s razor is used as a discovery tool that guide scientist in the development of models that are used theoretically. It is not considered as the principle of logic because the results are obtained scientifically. Hence, the use of simpler theories would be preferred to those that are complex because they can be easily tested (Carey, 2012).
References
Carey, S. S. (2012). A beginner's guide to scientific method. Boston, MA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.
Hiroshi, S. (1997). What is Occam’s Razor? Physics FAQ. Retrieved July 26, 2016.
Roberts, D. (2012). Definition of a Relation and a Function. Oswego City School District Regents Exam Prep Center. Retrieved July 26, 2016.
Tong, W. (2003). The Scientific Method. Earth Science. Retrieved July 26, 2016.
Trochim, W. (2006). Correlation. Research Methods Knowledge Base. Retrieved July 26, 2016.
