Introduction
Until publication of this paper, only a few psychiatric and psychoanalytic papers had reported on features of self-pity in the context of other topics. This was the first study to use empirical findings to elucidate aspects of personality linked to self-pity. The author addressed this gap in the literature by recruiting undergraduate students at the Martin-Luther University Halle-Wittenberg to complete a series of questionnaires. The results were used to correlate expression of self pity with other aspects of personality as defined by the Big Five personality dimensions. (Stober, 2003)
The author predicted that self-pity tendencies would correlate with increased levels of neuroticism, "external locus of control, anger-in, anger-out, as well as lower levels of anger control." (Stober, 2003) Further, study 2 was predicted to reveal dysfunctional adult attachment styles in those people with self-pity traits.
Method
Both studies used a college student population with mean ages of 21.9 for study 2 and 22.6 for the first study. Both studies also used self-reporting scales, although the designs used were slightly different for each. Study 1 (which included 76 females and 66 males) utilized the German inventory, "Coping with Stress Questionnaire" to determine stress responses of participants. A second self-report, the NEO-FFI, was also included to assess individual expression of the "Big Five personality dimensions." These included neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. Both questionnaires used a 5 point scale with 0 representing a "not at all" or "strongly disagree" statement, and 5 being "very likely" or "strongly agree" depending on the appropriate term.
For the second study, 88 females and 73 males of mean age 21.9 were recruited to fill out several questionnaires to explore which aspects of neuroticism predict self pity behavioral traits, any relationship between dysfunctional anger expression and self pity, and if there was a particular adult attachment style implicated in personalities punctuated by self pity. These assessments included the NEO Personality Inventory, Anger-related Reactions and Goals Inventory, and Measure of Attachment Qualities. As in the firsty study, preliminary analyses were carried out with both genders collapsed. However, significant correlations were further investigated with genders separated.
Results and Discussion
Results of Study 1: Overall, females showed greater levels of self pity, extraversion, and agreeableness than males, as well as decreased levels of social loneliness. Self pity was shown to positively correlate with beliefs in external forces determining one's life course in addition to both anger expression and repression. In fact, anger repression was seen to be a better predictor of self pity than "anger out". Also, emotional loneliness, but not social loneliness, correlated with self pity.
Results of Study 2: With respect to the specific aspects of personality implicated in differential expression of self-pity between genders, females displayed higher levels of anxiety, vulnerability, impulsivity, security, and depression, and lower levels of humor and non-involvement than males. Unexpectedly, security was shown to positively correlate with self pity. Regression analyses further refined the results and indicated that the major contributors to predicting self pity include depression, rumination, and the attachment style of ambivalence-worry.
Critique
The biggest weakness of this paper lies in its limited population sample. While both genders were equally represented, the narrow age range (~22) does not provide an adequate representation of what is encountered on a global scale. Additionally, the only methods used involved self-reporting questionnaires. As the author astutely notes, males are less likely to report feelings of self pity than females, and people generally have a skewed sense of themselves due to the inability to inject objectivity. Future studies in this area would be strengthened by including evaluations given to family and friends in addition to the individual participants.
Another glaring weakness of the study is the purely correlational nature of the analyses. This is further weakened by the exploratory nature of many of the calculations performed; however, this is a necessary part of human studies and the authors fully acknowledge this limitation and thus term their findings “preliminary”. Lastly, due to the number of statistical calculations made, even at a stringent confidence level, it is likely that at least one of the results is misleading or false.
All of these limitations aside, intuitively, the results of the study make sense. Thus, the statistics can be viewed as a confirmation to the original hypotheses. The authors site further follow-up studies that would include longitudinal designs as part of their future directions which would also strengthen the validity of the results. Therefore, this paper has established a fairly strong background against which multiple factors can be tested and validated. This would have particular utility in future therapeutic strategies and designs for people coping with extended grieving, depression, and other situations that are characterized by tendencies toward self pity.
Another strength of the results was the innovative use of regression analysis and partial correlations to determine which personality traits and attachment styles were most predictive of self pity. This was a creative use of statistics that allowed assessment of behaviors across both genders that showed the strongest correlation with self pity. The authors used the resulting three traits, depression, rumination, and amibvalence-worry, to create a global picture of what the course of typical self pity behavior patterns look like. Additionally, they were able to show that of these three traits, ambivalence-worry was the least predictive component (i.e. depression and rumination have the strongest predictive index).
Relationship of the study to personality theory
The author’s discussion of the data lends itself to the person-centered theory posited by C.R. Rogers (1959). According to this framework, people innately tend toward an optimal level of functioning; however, incongruence, characterized by a disconnect between one’s self-concept and his/her experience, can develop under certain unfavorable conditions. In this article, Stober repeatedly points to self pity as an attempt to cope with stress and thereby re-establish equilibrium. Within the context of person-centered theory, this could be interpreted as an attempt to become a “fully functioning person” (i.e. experiencing congruency between experience and self-concept). (Patterson and Joseph, 2007)
Stober also points out that oftentimes self pity is an attempt to garner attention from others. Ironically, this behavior usually results in further isolation as people look unfavorably at those who remain self-pitying. This effort to engage others can also be interpreted within the confines of person-centered theory as a means to regain congruency. The failure of this system puts a person at increased risk for psychopathologies according to this theory as well.
In Cognitive-experiencial Self Theory (CEST), everyone possesses two independent sensory processing systems: an automatic, intuitive system, and an objective and deliberate system. (Teglasi and Epstein, 1998) Because both aspects interact, a person is not necessarily ruled by either completely at any given moment; however, since the objective process requires more time to analyze input and greater cognitive resources, there is a tendency to rely on the automatic system in times of reactivity (such as in emotionally charged situations). Within this context, the data of this study offers some confirmatory results.
For example, in favor of a dual-process system, participants with higher levels of self-pity also displayed higher expressions of anger, which supports an automatic reaction style. However, self-pity was also correlated to anger repression which likely involves a more calculated and deliberate thought process. Thus, a person prone toward self pity might alternate outbursts with periods of ruminating and anger-in behavior. However, one aspect not addressed is the determination of which system ultimately dictates the behavioral outcome. Also, when partial correlations and regression analyses were carried out, this determinant (i.e. anger styles) of self pity was shown to actually contribute negligibly.
Lastly, Mayer (2006) proposed that modern psychology is trending toward standard theories with a narrower, more specific scope than the grand theories of the early 50’s and 60’s. This particular paper certainly backs that position. By exploring one particular behavioral trait in depth and attempting to draw correlations between other aspects of personality, Stober has expanded the knowledge about self-pity without attempting to create an entirely new unified or grand theory.
Relationship of the study to your own life and personality development
I have experienced two periods in my life pertaining to self pity: one marked by self pity, and another in which I continue to strive for personal accountability and responsibility. During my adolescent and teenage years, a mix of family circumstances, social changes (i.e. transition from middle school to high school and on to college), and poorly developed coping mechanisms spurred a head long plunge into depression and anxiety. Concurrently, I found myself lamenting the externalities that I perceived as keeping me caught up in this cycle of sorrow.
Consistent with the results of this paper, I had all of the classic symptoms associated with self pity. I was short-fused, prone to hold resentments, and desired attention and affection. In my vain attempt to resolve my need for companionship with my inability to ask for it directly, I succumbed to self pity and brooding in hopes that someone would notice and seek to help me heal. Predictably, this never happened. Instead, I sought out counseling and became active in social organizations.
Once my behavior shifted away from a place of resignation and repression to an attitude of acceptance and action, the self pity disappeared without any attempts to willfully alter this personality trait. This is one area this study could not address: How do alterations in behavior change the expression of self pity? I would venture to guess that if the author does follow through with longitudinal studies, he will see a decrease in self pity for those participants that actively seek out some form of therapy and/or participate in activities that imply a general state of personal responsibility.
In addition to my own experience, I have also witnessed the effects that my mother’s behavior and emotional state have had on her levels of self pity. From an outside perspective, the degree of corroboration I notice between the results of this paper and her conduct is uncanny. She is prone to melancholy, tends to hold her anger in and then gossip about her antagonizer later, and all of her misfortunes seem to have happened via the capricious whims of an unfair puppeteer. Rarely, if ever, does she accept responsibility for her own feelings.
Conclusion
“Self-Pity: Exploring the Links to Personality, Control Beliefs, and Anger” is the first systematic, empirical study to delve into specific personality attributes that predict expression of self-pity. While many of the findings are preliminary in nature, they will provide a fertile basis for future investigations into this process. The statistical methods used were appropriate and perhaps even innovative with respect to the use of partial correlations. In addition to validating previous observations (such as the potential gender differences among levels of self pity), this study added new information to this subject. Notably, the inclusion of dysfunctional adult attachment styles and specific forms of neuroticism and anger lend to the specificity of the information contained in the article.
References:
Patterson, T.G., Joseph, S. (2007). Person-Centered Personality Theory: Support from Self-Determination Theory And Positive Psychology. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 47:117
Mayer, J.D. (2006). A New Vision of Personality. . . and of Personality Theory. American Psychologist, May–June
Teglasi, H., Epstein, S. (1998). Temperament and personality theory: The perspective of cognitive-experiential self-theory. School Psychology Review, Vol. 27, Issue 4
Rogers, C. R.. (1959). A theory of therapy, personality, and interpersonal relationships, as developed in the client-centered framework. In S. Koch (Ed.), Psychology: A study of a science (Vol. 3) (pp. 184-246)
Stober, J. (2003). Self-Pity: Exploring the Links to Personality, Control Beliefs, and Anger. Journal of Personality, 71:2
