Psychology: The Multi-store model of memory
Overview of the concept of memory
Memory is the description of the ability to accumulate and retrieve data (personal experience, facts, skills, emotions, habits, etc.). Processes involved in human learning are always subjects of interest for educators and scientists. The way people acquire new information and retain previous knowledge became the focus of numerous researches and studies. A couple of influential researchers in perception Lutz, & Huitt (2003, pp.1) defined it as an investigation of how individuals convert, construct, collect, recover, use or manage to learn abilities.
Ever since the development of psychology, memory has always been used to refer to the ability construct and collect data. Part of this information includes experiences, emotions, skills, and habits among others. Memory processes that are involved in human, come as a result of learning and experience. The primary focus of memory and cognition studies has always been in the way people acquire new information while at the same time retaining old information which presents the basis for numerous studies in the proof that memory exists. Among the many influential researchers of psychology, cognition and memory, (Atkinson and Shiffrin 1968, pp.91) provide a framework explaining how memory is made up. In a suggestion by both researchers, the memory comprises a series of stores and thus its name-The multi-store model.
Discussion of the concept of memory and cognition
The area of cognition studying memory accounts to a great number of theories elaborated to describe how information processing occurs. There are many dissensions in explanations to how information is coded and stored in the brain. Baddely (1994, pp.353) state that memory system is influenced by principles of brain operations and processed information, in other words, “this provides a suggestion that memory is a combination of all cognitive knowledge” (Lutz & Huitt 2003, pp.3). (Lutz &Hutt 2003, pp.3), regard memory as the ability which helps understand the world and explain reactions to changes in the world. Speaking of recalling the information, Sir Frederick Charles Bartlett determined two characteristics of memory. One of them consists of the statement that memory is inaccurate. The second one informs that this inaccuracy is systematic. These statements lead to a thought that besides information is stored, it is also retained, processed, changed, and transformed into new knowledge.
Though differences in approaches and theories cause many discussions, there are also some fundamental principles which most educators agree with. For example, it is necessary to mention a theory that there are limitations on the amount of information and rate of storing and retrieving new information. “An enormous number of mental investigators agree to the existence of a control system that organizes cognitive stimuli’ (Lutz & Huitt 2003, pp.2). Then, there is an agreement that new information is involved into interaction with stored information.
This work is based on the widely used influential and comprehensive model of memory which is also called a modal model. It was a kind of culmination in studying memory and was developed by Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968, pp.1) to explain most important processes in memory and how they work. “In their explanation, there is a detailed elaboration of prior theories which prove the existence of underlying cognition processes with an including of rehearsal strategies for both short term and long term memories’ (Raaijmakers & Shiffrin 2003, pp.753). Atkinson-Shiffrin theory provides both general foundations of memory processes analyses and detailed models of particular experimental tasks.
Short Term memory
This is the second stage and is referred to as the short-term memory also referred to as the conscious part of the brain because data is being actively processed at this stage. Here information can be lost within 15-30 seconds without acting upon it. Rehearsal allows keeping information until it is processed further, without further processing; it can be lost. To transfer information to long-term memory, it needs to be elaborated in depth. Among several models suggested on encoding information, it is possible to underline three main ways for its retention. When a stimulus coincides with existing structures, it is just added to mental representation. When a stimulus differs from the existing structure, the structure can be changed, adapted, and broaden. If the stimulus does not match at all, it leads to the creation of absolutely new structure in memory. Nevertheless, information processing is conducted using existing structures and relations in them. Educators can use these findings to present information in the most appropriate way for its acquiring.
Long Term Memory
This memory holds every information and understanding perceived, learnt, and articulated by the individual for long periods of time. Discussions related to structures of memory, mostly focus on types of memories and suggestions about how memory units are processed in the mind. Retrieving memories depend on numerous factors which can help or impede further processing. Transferring of information flow means copying certain information from one store into another without its removing from the store where it has appeared. It is supposed that all information is being transported to this store during the whole period of information processing although its form and amount influence it.
Rehearsal, Coding and Retrieval
Control processes mentioned above including rehearsal, coding, or retrieval strategies made a significant contribution to the explanations “the study outcomes and the consequences of its activities which led to the understanding of the knowledge of the numerous levels of processing’ (Raaijmakers & Shiffrin 2003, pp.3). Speaking of coding in short-term memory, (Lutz & Huitt 2003, pp.3) conducted an experiment which consisted of showing a list of six consonants for less than a second and writing them down. It was found that most spread mistakes were related to the sounds of given letters, for example, B instead of P. While there were only two mistakes of writing S instead of P. So, coding information directly depends on how information sounds. Miller (1956, pp.92) introduced the audience to a list of ten words, then using visually presented “probe words” helped to recognize a homonym, synonym, or something identical. Coding in long-term memory is mostly considered as semantic, but some information is also coded acoustically, visually or using senses. As for the differences in duration of how long information is held, in short-term memory, it lasts for 15-30 seconds, while from several seconds to years in long-term memory.
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), also paid attention to the long-term memory role of rehearsal in their article. Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) theory, defines that rehearsal regarding repetition as one of the focus mechanisms in the process of information transferring. While examining rehearsal and its functions, it was found that it is not the only repetition, it “is an application of a label of any active processing that maintains data in conscious stores so that information is immediately and accurately recalled at any point during rehearsal. (Dark & Loftus 1976, 2). A set of experiments has shown that repetition can serve as a mechanism which helps to transfer information and keep it in long-term storage more permanently. It is also stated that existing connection between some repetitions and final test performance does exist. Attention is one of the determinative factors in experiments because when it is involved in repetition, the long-term performance increase.
The Multi-store model and other supporting experiments
This model is a presentation and a description that memory is regarded as information that flows through a series of systems. According to the understanding presented by both researchers, this process can also be discussed as an information processing framework that is likened to that of a computer with input and output. This is a very popular model of memory that creates an assumption that different kinds of memories are used to perform various activities. The three stages mentioned in the multi-stage memory are working memory, long term, and sensory memory. In this same understanding, William James (1890, 1-10) provided a brief description of the fundamental difference between secondary and primary memory where primary memory comprised of experienced stored for a brief period while secondary memory comprised of thoughts experiences that are permanent. William James provided this discussion in support of the multi-store memory. Regarding cognition and memory ability, further experiments by other different researchers were developed in support and challenge of the memory model.
A more famous study that supported Atkinson and Shiffrin memory model was the experiment to investigate the capacity of the short-term memory. The most important investigation was performed by (Miller 1956, pp.92) to find out how amnesia occurred. Since the procedures of the same study were difficult to investigate, Jacobs (2007, pp.20) developed a better discussion in support of the idea that memory is in a multi-stored process. In his study, participants were read to a list of numbers or words and they were presented with a chance to recall and present immediately. Jacobs significantly increased the duration that the recalling process needed until when the participants could correctly recall information and in the correct order. To support the idea of multi-store memory brought by Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968), Jacobs discovered that the significant difference in letters and numbers as participants could only recall more numbers than letters and the recalling processes seemed to be interfered with by the age factor. His experiment confirmed that indeed memory is a diverse and multifaceted phenomenon and that the principles of storage and retrieval are dependent on the nature and storage ability of both short term and long term memories.
Later on Miller (1956, pp.90) supported Jacobs’s findings and together they supported the idea of memory being a multi-store. In her publications, she also discovered that chunking can increase memory capacity. Just like Atkinson and Shiffrin had discovered that chunk is important in memory, so did Miller in her ‘The magic number seven, plus or minus two’ (Miller, 1956, pp.90). Regarding the encoding process discussion by Atkinson and Shiffrin discussed that encoding is via a rehearsal loop that enables to retain information in the short term memory while consolidating it into the long term making the process of encoding a success. They also argued that information can be stored and retrieved with any duration in the long term memory that has an unlimited capacity. Baddeley (1994, pp.395) performed an experiment to study the duration in which information can be stored in both short term and long term memories. In his experiment, he gave his participants four sets of words to recall in order.
In the short term, participants were made to recall and present immediately while for the long term they were given a longer time to recall. To counter the discussion presented by Atkinson and Shiffrin, he found out that the durability of both memories did not support information retrieval. In the long term storage, participants only encoded information with its meaning. After the development of the model by Atkinson & Shiffrin, there were developments of experiments to counter their findings (Baddley & Hitch 1974, pp.60) have questioned the authenticity of the multi store model proposing that memory comprises of short-term memory and is later subdivided into multiple components (Baddeley & Hitch 1974, pp.60). Peterson & Peterson (1959, pp.195) also developed the XQF experiment in the investigation of the duration of the long-term memory. According to them, the multi-store model does not make sense as it is over simplified like they would liken it to riding a bike through its meaning. Even though research has been unable to measure the unlimited nature of the long-term memory, presented research against the findings by Atkinson and Shiffrin have revealed the oversimplified nature of their discussion and the misunderstanding between the real difference between models and descriptions (Raaijmakers & Shiffrin 2003, pp.89-195).
References
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Baddeley, A .D., & Hitch, G. (1974). Working memory. In G.H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory (Vol. 8, pp. 47–89). New York: Academic Press.
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Lutz, S., Huitt, W. (2003). Information processing and memory: Theory and applications. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/papers/infoproc.pdf
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Peterson, L. & Peterson, M. ( 1959). "Short-term retention of individual verbal items". Journal of Experimental Psychology 58 (3): 193–198. doi:10.1037/h0049234
Raaijmakers J.G.W., Shiffrin R.M. (n.d). Models of Memory. Stevens’ Handbook of Experimental Psychology, Third Edition, Volume 2: Memory and Cognitive Processes. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Retrieved from http://cogs.indiana.edu/FestschriftForRichShiffrin/pubs/2002%20Models%20of%20Memory.%20Raaijmakers,%20Shiffrin.pdf
Raaijmakers, J.G.W. & Shiffrin, R.M. (2003). Models versus descriptions: Real differences and language differences. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 26, 753
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