Shintoism and Buddhism in Japanese History
Before the spread of today’s religion, the early civilizations had different views as to how they could explain the things around them. Some would say it is the work of spirits who dwell upon plants, animals and inanimate objects while others believe in the intervention of divine beings who created the world prior to mankind. While some of these early beliefs have been forgotten in favor of newer religions, there are countries where early beliefs played heavily in the formation of the nation and even triggered a conflict to occur when a new religion was introduced to the public. Japan is a notable example to this as the country still clings on to both Shintoism and Buddhism even at the present time. Regardless of the changing beliefs triggered by development and certain events, how did these two religions play a role in molding Japan as it is seen today and how different are they from one another? Both Shintoism and Buddhism value the importance of traditions, cultures and beliefs; however, the state religion Shintoism believes that divine spirits or Kamis would provide blessing and guidance to practitioners while Buddhism believes that Buddha would guide them in attaining peace and prosperity.
Shintoism is considered Japan’s oldest religion and its exact history is unknown considering the different usage of the word Shinto in early Japanese texts. According to Huffman (2010), the Kojiki or the Record of the Ancient Matters and the Nihon shoki or the Chronicle of Japan have the first writings where this indigenous religion is first discussed. In the Kojiki which was written in eight-century BC, Shintoism began from the belief of early Japanese – stressing that the creation of the universe was instigated by a royal clan which descended from Kami or God. Kami are divine spirits or entities that dwell within natural features like animals, plants, and mountains. These divine spirits can even live in the form of thunder and lightning, and in some cases; live in man-made objects. Both the Kojiki and the Nihon shoki (Chronicle of Japan) denotes that Japan was created by the Kami Izanagi. In the story, Izanagi had returned to his domain after a visit to the underworld and found himself covered in filth. He complained about this visit and purified himself with a bath. As he bathed in the middle stream, he gave birth to a new deity in each movement who was known as Izanami. Both deities slowly ‘gave birth’ to each of Japan’s islands. The two ancient texts then continued on in narrating how the grandson of the sun goddess Amaterasu – Ninigi no Mikoto – descended from the heavens to restore order in the Japanese islands. This action would then slowly shape Japan’s identity and the birth of the imperial line through the bloodline of Jimmu. The first emperor of Japan journeyed to the Kinai plain in Honshu which he describes as a “fair land encircled on all sides by blue mountain” at “the center of the world” – to begin “the Heavenly task” of imperial rule. The ancient texts also included stories where gods and rulers embodied god like qualities, eventually establishing some of the oldest local and regional traditions that changed the country .
Aside from the belief of the existence of Kamis, Shintoism – according to Duiker and Spielvogel (2012) – stated that Shinto does not have a specific superstructure for its kamis and moral code which their followers need to abide. However, it does require followers to do certain rituals in shrines and purification in order to alleviate one’s concerns over death, illness, childbirth and even purity. These traditions eventually formed the Japanese’s adherence to cleanliness and why women should not be allowed to enter holy places. Shintoism also teaches the importance of valuing nature and its importance to Japanese life. Most of the Shinto shrines created from the Asoka period to the Meiji period are all located in areas where nature can easily be seen and boost its natural beauty. Shinto practice easily melted in the lives of Japanese even at the present time .
Shintoism had several emperors and empresses as its major followers, allowing the faith to continue and prosper in their leadership. Huffman (2009) indicated Emperor Temmu and his successor and wife Jito as two of Japanese leaders who adhered to the Shinto belief. Under Temmu, he utilized the title ‘Heavenly Sovereign’ or the tenno as part of its title as the Japanese Emperor. His laws – the Asuka Kiyomihara Code – for example, were also done in lieu of Shinto beliefs that the imperial line had divine origins. A new form of Shintoism grew in the eight century under the establishment of Ritsuryo Shinto which focuses on the ‘harai’ and ‘misogi’ or purification. Ritsuryo Shinto also uses the Kojiki and the Engi-shiki as their guide and reference for expression and study .
The Nihon shoki did present the possibility that Shintoism is the indigenous representation of other fates such as Buddhism and Taoism. According to Kuroda (1981), Shinto may be the Japanese term for folk religions such as how China sees Taoism, Buddhism and overall religion. Considering this perception, Shinto would then pertain to Japanese ancient customs, beliefs and traditions which they have learned from the Chinese or Koreans. The text also uses the word Buppo which loosely translates to Buddha’s teachings when discussing Japan’s ancient religion. Shinto can also be interpreted as Taoism because in China, Taoism also pertains to ancient practices honoring religious symbols where divine presence is located. It is likely that Shintoism is a local version of Taoism and the word Shinto actually means Taoism .
Around the same time as Shintoism was practiced in Japan in the 6th century, Buddhism had also been introduced to the country in the same period. According to Umehara (1991), the first clear records where Buddhism’s entrance to Japan was written is in the Nihon shoki. According to the text, Buddhism was introduced in 552 AD by the Korean empire of Baekje to the Japanese emperor and was a major contender to the Shinto belief in the 7th century. Under the reign of Empress Suiko, her regent Prince Shotoku was said to be proficient with the Buddhist belief after being lectured on the Shoman-gyo and the Lotus Sutra. Prince Shotoku had also written his own sutras known as the Yuima-gyo. It can be said that Prince Shotoku had been the proponent of Japanese Buddhism in the country, teaching the Lotus Sutra Buddhism or lay Buddhism. After Shotoku, his successor Saicho honed the Buddhist faith in Japan and introduced new forms of Buddhism such as the Tendai sect and subsequently the Shinran. New sects were also established and they are the Ennin and Genshin sects .
There are certain similarities when it comes to the essence of Japanese Buddhism and Shintoism. According to Lyons, Peters, and Chang (1985), Shintoism is often considered a pre-Buddhist religion of Japan due to its belief in the essence of nature and the sacred beings. What the religion lacked are the scriptures that highlights the teachings of the kamis and a priest to guide followers on how they can practice their beliefs. Shinto also mostly focused on fertility and pollution by the time Buddhism was introduced and the kamis did not have a clear form. They are mostly embodied with animistic characteristics and their essence is strong in specific locations considered holy. Some also believed that Buddhism and Shintoism are similar given the story of a Buddhist monk called Gyogi in the 8th century. In the story, the monk combined both Shintoism and Buddhism as he discovered in 747 that the Sun Goddess Amaterasu is actually a local manifestation of Buddhism’s divinities.
Buddhism greatly varies with Shintoism when it comes to the beliefs it has depending on the Buddhist school. The first form of Buddhism practiced in Japan was the Esoteric Buddhism which began in the 9th century under the Heian period. This Buddhist school concentrated on Tantric Buddhism, or Buddhism focusing on magic and female deities similar to the beliefs of Hinduism. The Tendai and Shingon schools are two examples of esoteric Buddhism that grew in Japan. The Tendai sect focused on the practice of Zen or the Lotus Sutra while the Shingon sect used magics, incantations and rituals as part of its belief. Shingon also depicts the story of the Dainichi Nyorai and the Vairochana through out, symbolizing the powers of the divinity and the sacred diagrams called Mandalas. Even at the present time, the Shingon Buddhist school is the most important sect in Japanese Buddhism. Another school of Buddhism is the Jodo – Pure Land – which focuses on the Amida, the Buddha of Infinite Light. Under this school established in the 10th century, there is a strong emphasis on the importance of the Amida and salvation to the Western Paradise. Zen Buddhism followed the popularity of the Jodo school in the 12th to 13th centuries and indicated the importance of meditation to reach the Dharma. Finally, Buddhism also has the Nichiren School, which combined nationalism with missionary work.
Although both Shintoism and Buddhism are very popular to the Japanese, Buddhism was mostly seen as a foreign religion and heavily controlled by the government under the Tokugawa era in 1615-1867. Every Buddhist shrine has to record the citizens included in its territory as part of a census. As a result of this requirement, many Buddhist temples are connected to generations of families. Shintoism did not experience this similar treatment from the Tokugawa regime . When the Meiji Restoration took place in 1868, Japan was totally reformed in both political and social aspect. According to Nishijima (1997), the feudalism was already becoming weak and Japan’s resistance in preventing foreigners from entering the country are slowly crumbling. Eventually, a military coup against the Tokugawa government was done and instigate reform. Under the Meiji Restoration slogan’s “Osei Fukko” or the Restoration of the Monarchy, the revolutionists aimed to entice the people to break way from their cultural habits in the Tokugawa period and that includes the practice of Buddhism. In the first five years of the Meiji Restoration, Buddhist temples were destroyed and many of its practitioners were forced to return back to society. This anti-Buddhist movement was called the “Haibutsu Kishaku” – “hai” means throw away, “butsu” pertains to Buddha, “Ki” is abolish and “shaku” is the Shakamuni or Gautama Buddha. Although there were people who fought against the Haibutsu Kishaku, Buddhism slowly crumbled and some of the traditions of traditional Buddhism were removed completely.
After the first wave of the Meiji Restoration, the Meiji government installed to ensure that changes the revolutionists wished to have are followed. They have opened their borders and learnt Western culture, tradition and ideology. In terms of Buddhism, various studies were launched to determine if Buddhism can be studied in a Western and scientific outlook. Various scholars such as the likes of Bun-yu Nan-jo (1849-1927), Kaikyoku Watanabe (1872-1895), Sensho Murakami (1851-1929) and Junjiro Takakusu (1866-1945) went to Europe to see the possibility of studying Buddhism with a western perspective. When these scholars returned to Japan, they introduced the “Daijo-Hi-Bussetsu-Ron”. “Daijo” pertains to Mahayana Buddhism, “Hi” is not, “Bussetsu” is about Buddhist teachings and “Ron” means theory. Considering these definitions, the Daijo-Hi-Bussetsu-Ron is the theory that argues that Mahayana Buddhism is not really true Buddhism. This study is supported by scholars Sensho Murakami and Masaharu Anezaki. Under this study, Buddhism can be analyzed by studying Gautama Buddha’s teachings when he was still teaching and the theories or branches that had developed after his death are not really true Buddhism. These Japanese scholars also also argued that Mahayana Buddhism is unreliable because of the additions that were attached in the original teachings of Buddhism .
Shinto, on the other hand, was slowly restored by the Meiji revolutionists as the state religion of the country. According to Fridell (1975), the Meiji government called for the restoration of the Jingikan or the Ministry of Kami Affairs in 1868 which was originally established through the Taiho Code of 701. This Jingikan would work on restoring Shinto practices and shrines. The Jingikan also has the same influence as the State Council or the Dajokan, showing the importance of Shintoism for these Meiji leaders. In 1871, the Jingikan was transformed into the Jingisho or the Department of Kami Affairs after facing problems with regards to the enforcement of its doctrines. The Jingisho was under the supervision of the Kyobusho or the Department of Religious Instruction, working on the joint Shinto-Buddhist effort that would teach the public regarding religious practices in both religions. However, this program was not successful and eventually demoted shrine affairs in 1877 to work under the Shajikyoku or the Bureau of Shrines and Temples. Unfortunately, this started the slow removal of the importance of Shinto Shrines throughout the country and eventually given a lower status in the government.
Like other countries, Japan values its religion very much as it has helped shaped the foundation of their ideology and identity. Shintoism embodied the roots of the Japanese people, showcasing how their ancestors lived their lives and what things must be valued by the people. Buddhism also reflect similarities with Shintoism, but its focus varies depending on the schools of thought prominent in the period. Although both religions share similarities with one another, it is clear that their histories and teachings are still very different from one another. One religion found itself discriminated in the Tokugawa and Meiji era while the other religion was considered a state religion and remains in harmony with Japanese lives despite its waning influence. Regardless of their situations in from the Asuka to the Meiji period, these two religions have honed Japan’s history and identity that is clearly seen by people today.
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