1. Biases that lead to Self-Enhancement
The book argues that people may make certain biases in their perception of their relative’s position so that they enhance their self-esteem that is called self-enhancement. On way of this bias, is the stereotypic in-group bias as a self-defense against relative deprivation. This happens in situations where one group is threatened by another group especially white vs black or vice versa. In this bias, discrimination incentives and evaluation creates an interpersonal, intra-psychic adaptively as a trait of self-enhancement (p.59). Similarly, people sometimes can relatively underestimate their own risks or chances of undergoing through undesirable events so that they minimize and protect their ego from the danger of facing unwanted outcomes. This form of self-enhancement is called self-assurance (p.67). Another bias occurs due to the need of self-presentation when one can have a very strong desire to impress by having a sense of unrealistic optimism.
1. Social Support
The text defines social support as the “the helpful coping resources provided by friends and other people” (p. 599). In the book, the authors evaluate definitions of social support utility for research. For purposes of improving clarity of meaning and the results of interventions, a defined approach for defining social support is necessary. The book proposes four methods that all use qualitative methods. The first one bases on diversity that proposes the different forms of social support from different people, the second social support comes from availability of the support from reliable sources. The third is from perceived availability that premises on the hope of the social support while the fourth embraces the concept of intimate support from the closest loved one.
2. Reconstructive Memory
The human memory works like a faithful camera those records and replays details of the past. Human memory works as a combination of new and old knowledge, personal beliefs and other experiences. This is why the human memory can be used to offer witness account for crimes. The book records that children‘s memory can be unreliable to be used as witnesses because they are vulnerable to change (p.501). Usually, the desire to break patterns and sense out problems is basic to human nature. Reconstruction is pivotal in ensuring that humans reconnect the past and bring out clear messages. However, age and physical health can be detrimental to the full execution of this responsibility.
3. Stock Market
The stock market is inconsistence and fluctuates depending on the market situation. In that sense, the stock market is a representation of the human mind, it works on perception. If the perception is positive, then there is a chance for investors to make more money. On the other hand, if the perception is negative, there is a tendency to lose money ( p. 561). This why the stock market is an indicator of the operations of the human mind. It gives us a lesson on the application of things that motivate others.
4. Stereotypes
Stereotypes bias perceptions and responses even when we struggle to go against the stereotypes. In many cases, awareness of stereotypes is not enough a cure. Many mechanisms explain this occurrence. First, group members who do not fit the mold often subtype leaving the overall standing intact. Second, some stereotypes are more accurate than others are, but judging the accuracy of stereotypes is the challenging because of the term accuracy, which differs in meaning. Third, people can make attributions about the causes of group member’s behaviors in ways that help maintain their stereotype (p. 198).
5. Group Think
Groupthink emerges when the need for an agreement takes priority over the motivation to obtain accurate information and make outlines that fits the group’s model of thought. In other words, group thinking is an excessive desire to seek concurrence. One way of preventing group thinking is having an outlier make a case for different thought (p. 315).
6. Mating
Mating is a human behavior that is universal. Most societies conduct mating after engagement and marriage ceremonies. Universally, more than 90 percent of all humans will form long lasting relationships with the significant others. The choice of mating partners depends on many things. First, the age, the security, physical traits and cultural conformity. Most couples consider attractiveness as a big part of the seduction process.
7. Bystanders
Bystanders is a term referring to the process where the greater the number of people in an event of agency, the less likely the number of people who can help another in a distress. The retrospect is true, the lesser the observers, the higher chances of help coming (p. 410).
8. Punishment
When corporal punishment is applied on individuals, there is a chance that makes them used to the punishment and absorbs that way of life according to social learning theory. When applied equally and with rehabilitation, punishment is an effective way of correcting people.
9. Adults with baby-faced features are liked with adults. The society has favorable view for people who look younger than those who like adults.
