Socio-emotional development is an individual’s, especially children, continuous ability to understand how others feel and to control personal feelings and behavior such that they can get along well with their peers. The foundation on how we feel about ourselves and our relationships and experiences with others is, to a large extent, influenced by socio-emotional development. The quality of relationship given to a child by his primary caregivers is a major determiner of the child’s socio-emotional development. An individual’s feelings of trust, confidence, pride, affection, friendship and humor are all part of their social-emotional development. Social-emotional development encompasses both Intra- and interpersonal processes. Children are not born with social-emotional skills; it is the role of the first caregivers including parents and teachers to foster these skills in them (Benson & Haith, 2009). The skills are considerably important as they determine the child’s feelings about themselves and their relationships with others. This paper seeks to provide a comprehensive discussion evaluation of socio-emotional development in childhood. The paper has integrated the ideas of various theories of developmental psychology, but it is more inclined to Erik Erikson’s theory than it is in other theories.
According to the attachment theory, socio-emotional development begins long before the child is born (Armstrong & Sundman-Wheat, 2014). The development of the relationship between the mother and the child begins when the child is in their mother’s womb. Mothers as well begin to develop emotional feelings for their unborn babies. The attachment developed at this stage is that of intimacy and independence for both the mother and their children. In fact, the theorist cited this as the core reason as to why children are more attached to their mothers than their fathers. The most vital aspects of socio-emotional development that occurs for the new born is the wiring of feelings, readiness to learn and emotional regulation where they learn to manage stressful situations by interacting with their caregivers.
As opposed to the attachment theory, Erik Erikson’s theory provide that the first elements of socio-emotional development in a child begin after their birth (Armstrong & Sundman-Wheat, 2014).. In the first stage of a child’s social-emotional development, commonly known as the ‘Trust versus Mistrust’ stage, the child seeks to distinguish between people they can trust and those that they cannot. The stage runs from 0-2 years. They entirely depend on their primary caregivers for sustenance and comfort. An adult’s ability to trust or distrust individuals is primarily determined by how they were handled by their caregivers, especially the mother, at this stage of their life. If the parent exposes the child to warmth, dependability and regularity, their view of the world is that of trust. Conversely, if they fail to do so, such children are likely to develop feelings of withdrawal, suspicion, and lack of confidence.
Following the trust/ mistrust, social-emotional development stage is the autonomy vs. shame and doubt stage according to Erik Erikson’s theory. This is the early childhood stage when the child is at the age of 2-4 years. This is the stage at which the child is said to be most curious, and the main intention is to learn new things and explore their environment (Kalat, 2016). The primary interests of a child are developed at this stage, and the caregivers encourage such interests, they may translate to be the future careers of such children in future.
It is also important to note that at this stage, also known as the pre-kindergarten stage, children learn very quickly in spite of their short attention spans. The best way they can learn is by playing, imitating, being read to and observing others especially their caregivers. This is in line with the provisions of the social learning theory which provides that the best way children can develop socio-emotionally at this stage is by observing others, watching them keenly and imitating what they do (Armstrong & Sundman-Wheat, 2014).. As much as they are quick to learn, at this stage, the caregivers should understand that every child develops at their pace and should give them time to understand the various explorations to quench their curiosity. Some children develop the skill of self-awareness at this stage, but a few learn self-management and social awareness skills.
At the age of 4 to 5 years, children learn initiative versus guilt as far as social-emotional development is concerned. The main question that rings in their minds is whether or not it is right to do something, act or move in a certain manner. It is at this stage that children learn to imagine; to ‘dream’; to fantasize and to foresee their future. Future leaders and followers develop at this stage with a strong sense of cooperation. Through immobilization by guilt, children at this stage are fearful and like hanging in groups.
In consistency with Erik Erikson’s theory, the cognitive theory identifies that children experience a preoperational period at this age where language is the hallmark of development (Armstrong & Sundman-Wheat, 2014). Where children are in a formal school setting in this stage, they interact with more peers as well as adults which sizably helps them to increase their understanding of the world, its nature and the people living in it. The level of self-awareness begins, and there is a growing ability to identify their feelings and what causes them (Muir & Nadel, 2005). The ‘quicker to learn’ child gains increased ability to identify, understand and manage their emotions at this early stage. Further, the child seeks to ensure that that they have perfect social management skills by interacting and relating with others.
At the school age, from 5-12 years, children seek competence by learning industry versus inferiority. According to Erik Erikson’s theory, the child maximizes on mastering on more formal life skills including relating with peers according to pre-defined rules and regulations, progressing from free play to play that has pre-set guidelines and mastering studies especially the social ones and arithmetic. Further, children at this stage yearn to read on their behalf as opposed to being read for and the perceive self-discipline and character as mandatory and the necessity for life. The social learning theory, therefore, ceases at this stage as the child prioritizes reading over observing. Even so, observation is not entirely dropped but reading dominates it (Armstrong & Sundman-Wheat, 2014). Depending on the results of earlier stages in social-emotional development, the child is either trusting or not, autonomous or not and may be full of initiative or not.
In this stage, where most of the children are still at their elementary school, self-confidence is developed. There are several opportunities for recognition, which vocal children seek, by teachers, parents, and peers by being creative, innovative and inventive. Children seek to come up with creative and superior drawings for recognition, solve complex arithmetic problems, write article amongst other extraordinary activities (Damon et al., 2006). As they explore, the environment becomes a key platform for their exploration. According to the ecological systems theory, children at this stage seek to develop within the context of their world with consideration to both biological and environmental factors (Armstrong & Sundman-Wheat, 2014). Encouragement and praise at this stage of the child’s life lead to diligence, perseverance, and prioritizing work over pressure. Conversely, if they are condemned or ridiculed, they feel demoralized, discouraged and ended up developing feelings of inferiority.
In the age of thirteen and nineteen years, the teenager learns identity versus identity diffusion. Fidelity becomes a key social-emotional element at this along this age. It is at this stage that the individual learns to answer successfully and comfortably of who they are. Rebellion, especially in boys, is prevalent as a result of major confusion and brainy identity mix-ups. Some individuals doubt of who they are at this stage to the extent of developing stress which, if not properly handled, may translate to severe depression. A strong adult-like feeling develops in most of these teenagers in their late teens hence the rebellion.
It is at this stage that questions on the appearance of these individuals to others begin to develop. An individual’s actions, behavior, and appearance and how others perceive them turns out to form a crucial part of their major considerations. As these individuals approach the end of their childhood, they ponder the roles they would wish to play in future in the adult world. For instance, late teenagers may tinker with cars and affiliate with certain religious or political groups amongst others. According to Erik Erikson’s theory, the tinkered roles foresee the future regarding where the teenager’s lives are headed.
In the age between twenty and thirty-nine years, also known as early adulthood, individuals develop regarding intimacy and isolation as far as social-emotional development is concerned. According to the attachment theory, attachment begins to grow from that of teenager and the parent to that of the teenager and their friends, and members of the opposite sex (Armstrong & Sundman-Wheat, 2014). Successful young adults are more likely than not to experience true intimacy for the first time. The main question that rings in the minds of this category of individuals is, can I love? Or can I be loved? Some elements of the identity versus confusion stage also appear at this stage with more questions inclined towards other people’s perception.
The parenting style adopted by the adult’s parents dictates the individual personalities of such adults in this stage. For instance, an adult who was brought up in an authoritative manner cannot show the same love and intimacy as a child who was brought up in an uninvolved manner. Intimacy, love and isolation conflict is more emphasized at and around the age of thirty with more individuals growing more eager to blend their identities with their friends. At this stage, it is possible for some individuals to be isolated as a result of intimacy in their undying attempts to fit in certain intimacy-oriented groups where they are less welcome (Armstrong & Sundman-Wheat, 2014). Isolation pain becomes familiar and to some, the pain of rejection hits so hard that their egos cannot bear. The element of avoiding those people who seem dangerous to individual’s intimate relations becomes more prevalent with more preference to isolation than harmful counterparts (Brain & Mukherji, 2005).
Individuals between the age of forty and six four years learn generativity versus self-absorption. This age range demands a lot of generality both in the family in the marriage and parenthood aspect as well as in the workplace. It is at this stage that the innovative and creative nature of an individual as identified during their elementary school become more evident as they are utilized in productive activities. Individuals, in this stage of social-emotional productivity, seek to answer the question of whether they can make their life count or not. They, therefore, do all that they can to ensure that their life counts.
The main intention of individuals in this class, especially at the age of forty years, is to conduct a developmental task that portrays their contribution to the society at large as opposed to their individual interests. Their tasks are geared towards helping future generations to make greater achievements or to lead a better life than they did. The extent to which individuals feel that they have maximized their potential in generativity contribution, however, differs from one individual to the other. As a result, some individuals feel contended by simply raising their families for the society while others feel that they ought to participate maximally in the betterment of the society. Self-centered, unwilling or individuals who are unable to contribute towards societal betterment feel dissatisfied at this age.
The final social-emotional development stage as identified by Erik Erikson’s theory is the wisdom stage where individuals develop the question on whether or not it was okay to have been who they have been. If they are contented with the person, they have been, they develop a sense of self-respect, integrity, and independence (Armstrong & Sundman-Wheat, 2014). They grow to be bold enough to raise real issues affecting their societies with considerable contention. At this stage, intimacy, guilt, lack of realism and regret are easily portrayed as no strain, struggle or fear. Productivity, however, slows down and the ability to invent, innovate, create and explore life (Muir & Nadel, 2005). At this stage, despair is experienced when the individuals feel that they did not accomplish the goals they had for life. They become hopeless with increased depression and suppression of individual thoughts and feelings.
Under the wisdom stage also occurs a sub-stage that is commonly referred to as retrospection. In this sub-stage, comprehensive analysis of an individual’s life and accomplishments occur in an attempt to determine whether or not one has fully accomplished and lived a productive life.
References
Armstrong, K., Ogg, J., & Sundman-Wheat, A. (2014). Child Development Theories (1st ed.). Springer.
Benson, J. B., & Haith, M. M. (2009). Social and emotional development in infancy and early childhood. London: Academic.
Brain, C., & Mukherji, P. (2005). Understanding child psychology. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes.
Damon, W., Lerner, R. M., & Eisenberg, N. (2006). Handbook of Child Psychology Volume 3. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons.
Kalat, J. W. (2016). Introduction to psychology. Place of publication not identified: Cengage Learning.
Muir, D., & Nadel, J. (2005). Emotional development: Recent research advances. Oxford [u.a.: Oxford Univ. Press.
