Chapter 7: Civil Religion
Majority of people associate the word “religion” with major organized faiths that people have practiced for centuries. Traditional religions typically involve rituals, sacred texts, holidays, intimate beliefs held and practiced by a congregation. However, humans practice another form of religion, often unconsciously, which sociologists call civil religion. According to Johnstone (122), civil religion refers to secular forms of belief and ritual similar to those practiced in religion, such as political ceremonies. In social scientific context, the society matches cultural institutions with some kinds of social groups. For example, religion is a social embodiment in associations such as churches, the ceremonies in business, and education in schools among others. Civil religion on the other hand transcends across the entire society. Sociologist Robert N. Bella in his “Civil Religion in America” acknowledges how American ideals have taken a similar role similar to those of traditional religious practices in the United States. For example, during presidential speeches, they usually end their speeches by saying “God Bless America,” something similar to a religious prayer.
chapter 8: Fundamentalism
According to (Johnstone 155), the term religious fundamentalism first appeared towards the end of 19th century in the United States. During this period, a group of more liberal Protestants had attempt adapt their religious views to the modern world, something that the more conservative protestants vehemently protested. According to Johnstone, fundamentalists hold the belief that the bible must be understood literally and none can challenge biblical teachings. As such, all conservative movements, doctrines, and groups, which oppose the contemporary society, modern science and way of life. (Park 37) also presents the same definition of the term fundamentalism, and he defines fundamentalism as a belief that the bible presents the truth and nothing else and none should dispute biblical teachings. However, some of the Western media have used the term against Islam and Muslims, and fail to acknowledge the origin and true meaning, and implications of fundamentalism. It is evident from the historical perspective that fundamentalism originated from Christianity for Christians who hold strong religious belief and convictions in the literal meaning of the bible.
Chapter 10: Stratification, Religion, and Race”
Johnstone defines race as an externally imposed system of social stratification and categorization (). The author maintains that a true biological race does not exist; rather, human groups must be placed on a continuum. Typically, race refers to some physical characteristics that the society has decided to give importance. As such, race is a social construct. In general, stratification refers to how the society is divided into different groups of people based on their status. The basis for stratification includes social class, wealth and income, gender, ethnicity, political status and religion. Various sociology literatures have documented the vertical ranking of religious groups. These rankings can assume an open or closed system. In a closed system, people achieve status through effort and merit, while in a closed system; status is ascribed rather than achieved. However, Johnstone assume that people are ranked based on their religious affiliations. According to Bates (120-134), stratification is a functional for the society, which destabilizes the society. This leads to social problems such as religious hate crimes that would not have existed in the absence of stratification.
Chapter 11: Women and Religion
The chapter on women and religion examines the role of women within particular religious faiths, and religious dogmas relating to gender and gender roles in history of religion. Johnstone argue that males have dominated the leadership of religious organization for many years (231). However, it is evident, if not acknowledged, that women have done much of religious work and support for the institutional church. Despite these trends, in the recent decades, many religious organizations have admitted women into leadership of many religious organizations (Gladwell 231). This is however not true for some religious organizations such as Islam, which does not allow women leadership in their church settings. Such religious organizations have promoted inequality amongst people based on their gender. Johnstone maintains that the leadership and support roles for religious organizations will shift over to women out of necessity, and because of the fear that religions that continue to alienate women may face a strong opposition.
Chapter 13: Black and Native American Religion in America
The chapter begins by giving a historic overview of Black Church as social institution. According to Johnstone (250), the Black Church in America dates back to 1758 when the Whites viewed slave associations as a source of threat to their control of slaves. African slaves resorted to religion as a means of solace even though the whites never appreciated the involvement of slaves in Christianity. The Black Church developed to present the racial and religious lifestyle unique to the Black slaves. This may imply that Black Churches share the same strategies and aspirations for creating cohesive African-American communities. The chapter also describes how an air of militancy characterized the Black Churches because the Whites closed observed religious exercise of slaves to detect plans of insurrection or escape. Other religious options for African Americans is mainly Islam because it does not promote discrimination. Some African-Americans questioned why there are only white pictures of Jesus and Mary. Religions such as Islam does not have such pictures which may only imply that people had separate gods at some time.
Chapter 14 Ecumenism
Ecumenism refers to Christian modern movement that is evident among Roman Catholics, liberal Protestants, and the Eastern Orthodox. This came as a probable solution after many years various divisions to attempt a dialogue that would promote mutual understanding and communion of all Christian churches. Johnstone maintains that ecumenism movement has not created new churches, but promote mutual understanding and working with all constituent churches multilaterally, bilaterally, and within organizations such as the National Council of Churches of Christ (NCCC) and the World Council of Churches (WCC) (321). However, despite the belief that ecumenical movement aims at bringing all Christians into viable unity, most of these organizations try to describe the movement as a means of showing the world that Christians are united. I disagree with the whole concept of ecumenism because it serves as a means of allowing some religious organizations to dominate over other small churches. Such organizations have also contributed to deterioration of doctrinal standards of many denominations at the expense of ecumenical movement.
Chapter 15: Secularization
Secularization refers to a process of social change through which many factors in modern life lead to decline of religion as alternative ways of explaining reality and regulating social life change. These forces form part of the general modernism, and some lead to secularism, where governments run a country without the need of religion, and without endorsing any religion. Opponents of secularization argue that the decline in religion results from Enlightenment. They maintain that the progress of science and its concomitant rationality would replace the irrationality and superstition of religion. I think that modernity does not necessarily mean secularizing it essentially implies pluralizing. As such, modernity entails an increase in plurality, within the same society, of different values, beliefs, and worldviews. However, this challenge is not the one assumed by secularization theory.
Works Cited:
Bates, Larry. Psychology of Religion.” Sociology of Religion Class (SOC 495). University of North Alabama. 2008. Print.
Gladwell, Malcolm. The Tipping Point: How Little Things Can Make a Big Difference. 1st ed. Boston: Back Bay Books. 2002. Print.
Johnstone, L. Ronald. Religion in Society: A Sociology of Religion. 8th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Pearson/Prentice Hall. 2007. Print.
Park, C.Chris. Sacred Worlds: An Introduction to Geography and Religion. London: Routledge. 1994. Print.
