Economic development, as scholars have cited, is synonymous with the concept of modernization (Diarsi 1996). Modernization and development refer to the progression of society from conservative opinions towards an inclusive and liberal approach where people enjoy equality irrespective of their gender or race. Modern society also assimilates the concept of a 'just' society where women have equal access to resources as their male counterparts and disparities regarding job opportunities, wages, and social status are either non-existent or negligible. Theoretically, modernization should be one of the automatic outcomes of economic development; however, practical examples may not testify this theoretical hypothesis.
South Korea, an East Asian Nation, has experienced a robust economic growth in second half of the 20th century. As of now, it is one of the most advanced countries economically and technologically. Nonetheless, the role of women has not witnessed a colossal change. Inequalities in job market do permeate posing grave intellectual issues for scholars who have not been successful to solve this mystery of high economic development and low economic status of women.
Still, available literature sheds a little light on the traditional Confucian values and Korean collectivist culture that rule the minds of people. While men still consider women as responsible for household chores, women have gradually internalized the discriminatory behavior that comes in the way of their professional pursuits.
There is no denying the fact that situation is changing because of several initiatives by the government but this change is too slow to keep pace with other nations that are at par with Korea in other developmental indices. This paper explores the issue of discrimination with Korean women, fathoms underlying causes behind that, and briefs readers regarding a slew of challenges women face. The author has substantiated his perception with available statistics so as to present a holistic understanding of the readers.
EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES LACKING FOR KOREAN FEMALES
Unfortunately, Korea does not conform to the theoretical underpinnings suggesting a sync between economic development and the status of women. Statistics reveal problematic results regarding equal opportunities for women. Undoubtedly, their participation in the workforce has pepped up, but they are still marginalized in many aspects. For example, the most of the paid female employees are working on the production line in the manufacturing sector; they comprise the lowest paid workforce (Kong 2007). Though economic development has gradually facilitated women to shift from manufacturing to service industries with better working conditions, women occupying prestigious positions in managerial and administrative positions is abysmally low. Ironically, women held 17.7 percent of managerial and administrative positions in the 1960s and mere 1.5 percent in 1980. Scholars have termed this trend as industrial patriarchy (Wells 2015).
Despite rapid growth and excellent educational achievement, women have less representation in leadership roles. Concerning GDP, Korea stands at par with Spain and Mexico but ranks much lower than these nations when it comes to women leadership (Rajasekar 2013). It is ironical that education in Korea has seen huge advancement, and there is no difference between male and female students. However, women's leadership position is not on par with the nation's strong human and economic development.
The 2013 Global Gender Report has placed S. Korea at 111th place, much below than its own 92 in 2006. Government's initiatives to improve representation and equality have cast some impact, but this has not brought the required change. The status of Korean women is lower than many developing nations as per the official indices. The mismatch between economic development, educational performance, and women leadership is a mystery which scholars often term as 'enigma'.
These statistics are a clear indication that the benefits of economic status have not trickled down to females who are at the base of the pyramid, and struggling to have their separate identities. A study by World Economic Forum in 2005 highlighted that Korea ranked 54 among 58 nations for women empowerment. In economic opportunities, one of the most noticeable categories, it achieved a paltry 55th rank (Lowe-Lee NA).
The government passed equal employment opportunity legislation in 1987, but flawed implementation resulted in a disadvantageous status of women in hiring and promotion decisions. Around 80 percent of women surveyed admitted that they faced discrimination in promotion, around 57 percent endorsed that they experienced gender bias while looking for jobs. In January 2012, female labor participation was just 47.8 percent( one of the lowest in OECD nations) despite increased access to education and legal protection of women rights (Petterson 2012). Furthermore, wage discrimination narrates the real challenge of women despite large economic strides of the nation. The average working women earned 62 percent of their male counterparts during 2002 (Lowe-Lee NA).
DIVISION OF WORK IN KOREA: THE INFLUENCES OF GENDER STEREOTYPES
The Korean culture separates household from the society and reserves outside domain for men. Women are considered physically weaker than men; this notion automatically tends to segregate tasks based on gender. Professionally too, recruiters prefer men as full-time employees. It often results into hidden ceilings for women, especially after marriage.
Several theorists have put forward their opinions regarding the existing gender discrimination. Women's low participation in jobs stems from ingrained social, cultural, and legal trends (Petterson 2012). Confucian values have rooted the notion of stay-at-home females. The three major theories relating this are gendered politics, breadwinning roles of males, and the gender regime( occupational segregation).
Occupational segregation prevails with inflexibility in Korean firms irrespective of the size and type of industry. Though both males and females enjoy equal options in pursuing their educational goals, the competitiveness for women gets reduced because of the gendered division of jobs (Petterson 2012). A survey reveals that only 22 percent of companies have enforced flexible working hours. It signifies that women-friendly policies are not adequately implemented. The effects of foreign firms expanding in Korea have led to a shift in male breadwinner notion, but this swing has been insignificant in ameliorating the condition of women. Based on the concepts of male breadwinning and occupational segregation, scholars have stated two propositions(hypotheses) (Petterson 2012):
1. Gender discrimination continues in Korea because of male breadwinner theory. In financial crisis during 2008-2009, male breadwinner model further came to the fore and women were the first to be fired (Petterson 2012).
2. Occupational segregation is responsible for gender discrimination that exists irrespective of different organizational characteristics as types of firms, industries, and size of the companies.
Scholarly studies have highlighted that childbirth and marriage are the main causes of low female participation between 25-35 years of women. The participation of married women represents M curve signifying that women leave their jobs because of marriage and childbirth and do not prefer re-entry into the job market. Re-entry is further difficult because of less options and less wages as Korean firms still practice marriage bar (Go 2005). Though Government has rolled out re-entry assistance programs, pursuing second career options is a challenge for women in Korean society and culture that is still marked by traditionalism despite economic progression.
INITIATIVES TAKEN BY THE GOVERNMENT
The last decade has experienced some significant legal initiatives by Government to eliminate employment discrimination and enforce equality. Affirmative Action was made compulsory in 2006 for companies with greater than 1000 workers and was further amended in 2008 to apply to companies with 500 to 999 full-time employees (Petterson 2012). However, AA has been successful only partially pointing to the strong cultural mindset in Korea. Society is gendered; workplaces are male-dominated, and female talent has been put on the back burner (Park 2010). The Korean government is trying to ameliorate the condition further and aims to increase women's employment rate to 62 percent by 2017 by imparting outstanding child-care facilities and extending parenting leaves.
The nation is trying to deal with the issue by raising family budgets and Ministry of Gender Equality. Prime Minister Shinzo Abe has suggested zero waiting list for childcare by 2017 (Petterson 2012). There is another proposal to pull out child care leaves to three years, but that does not seem practical. Absence for such a long time would only make women incompatible for work and enhance employers disinterest in hiring them.
Apparently, most of the initiatives taken by the government emphasize on objective aspects as providing child care, enhancing maternity leaves or so. Little attention is paid towards subjective and ingrained concepts relating to women's inferiority and male superiority. However, legal actions are not absolutely futile. On a positive note, anti-discrimination and other legislations have facilitated women to stay on in their careers. Their stature has increased notably in government and politics. They comprised around 15 percent of National Assembly in 2012, a significant change compared to 1996. Likewise, the proportion of women in local councils increased to 20.3 percent in 2010 from meager 1.5 percent in 1995. The norm of dependent women is taking a beating, especially for young women in their 20s (Petterson 2012). They are coming out strong and independent as their male counterparts. A survey revealed that only 6 percent of women felt that their happiness depends on the success of their husbands and children.
Still, enhancing the awareness of employers towards the potential contribution of women is one of the keys to having successful female participation. At the same time, men must be persuaded to spurn gender-bias and move towards a more elite and egalitarian approach.
CHALLENGES FACED BY WOMEN
Gender regime, low employment status, and wage gap form crucial challenges for women. Korea embraces a collectivist culture that emphasizes social embeddedness, obligations, and duties. Women's interdependence is valued, but men are considered as more independent than women. Gender-stereotypes, thus, are shaped by traditional cultural outlook. Patriarchal Confucianism has been the prominent factor in influencing gender roles and societal perception on females (Petterson 2012). Korea also experienced patriarchal Confucianism where males dominated females and elders dominated the young. Based on Confucian notions, families observed strict gender differentiation. The sphere of women was restricted to home chores, and they were required to obey fathers, husband, and son.
The literature has reflected that Korean society is still guided by traditionalism in which women are considered as primary caretakers to children. It is one of the fundamental reasons that despite equal access to education and similar numbers of females and males graduates, Korea ranks poorly when it comes to employing females. The ordeal of females, in this sense, starts post-marriage. Not only they have to dodge their progressing careers, but re-entry is also difficult because of 'undeclared' marriage bar in the companies.
It is again ironical that South Korea is the only nation that does not have a higher employment rate for graduate females than their other female counterparts. It whiffs of clear disincentives for women, i.e., pay gap and discrimination. Apparently, the matter is of opinions and perception. Male dominance is so riveted in Korean culture and society that even robust economic growth has not been able to bring women at par with their male counterparts.
Women face contradictory demands and multi-layered expectations that drain out their time as well as energy. Woman's happiness lies in being a mother, and a wife- these are some of the archaic norms that have been deeply internalized by women. At fault are the cultural values that put full burden on women irrespective of the fact they are working. A survey conducted in 2006 revealed that around 87.4 families with working women did not divide any task. Furthermore, around 71.3 percent of men still opined that women should be responsible for most of the household chores irrespective of their working status.
CONCLUSION
Gender is still a major factor when it comes to recruitment by Korean companies. Literature and statistical evidence endorse the unequal position of women primary because of male breadwinning model and gendered segregation of tasks. Chores are divided at home also and women are supposed to take care of children irrespective of their work status. It validates both of the hypotheses formed by scholars.
Findings from HR practitioners do indicate that traditional cultural norms still prevail in Korea; it is one of the primary reasons of underrepresentation of women. A land of ancient Confucian values, Korea has not been able to alter traditional concepts with economic progress. As such, it defies theories that have identified a positive association between women's status and economic development.
Though Government has been trying at its level, legislation has not rectified the situation to a significant level. It is the time to communicate gender-based policies more effectively with tough fines and sanctions. Furthermore, it needs to coordinate and manage these policies efficiently by educating HR professionals regarding the structural aspects of gender inequality. Last but not the least, mass awareness campaigns must be launched so as to change the traditional mindsets of the people.
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