Abstract
Aim: This research examines how science and technology was utilised and applied in the building of major edifices and structures in Ancient Egypt.
Methodology: It is done by first examining the social organisation and social structures that existed in the country over 3,000 to 5,000 years ago and how it laid the foundation for science and how this science was applied to engineering and the construction of buildings in Ancient Egypt. This is followed by the evaluation of the methods and dominant cultures in construction and civil engineering in Ancient Egypt. The data is taken from credible writers and Egyptologists who have traced the cultural practices of Ancient Egypt.
Findings: The paper concludes by examining how the civil engineering and construction systems of Ancient Egypt influences modern architecture and engineering today. Ancient Egypt prospered due to irrigation of the Nile River which led to a higher quality of life and a population boom. The technology for the irrigation of the Nile was from the Stone Age. When the Bronze Age came up, Ancient Egypt had a base technology they could build on. They therefore created a system whereby they could apply and utilise technology to create buildings and various architectural projects. The pyramids, temples, obelisks and other major structures in Ancient Egypt were often built as a result of science and technology that was shrouded in mysticism. However, the growth of the papyrus helped in documenting information and transmitting scientific information easily.
The buildings of the pyramids and Egyptian megastructures were mainly done through the use of simple machines and a great deal of slave labor. Due to the lack of human rights and the acceptance of slavery and cruelty to lower classes of people, slaves were forced to do a lot of work to bring these buildings into existence. However, the leaders and elites had access to unique wisdom in construction that helped them to create major megastructures in an era where science and technology were very basic.
The system of construction used by the Ancient Egyptians were copied by different groups of peoples. First, the Israelites, Phoenicians, Sumerians and others gathered information from Ancient Egypt and integrated it into their own mindset. This enabled them to build major structures and institute high levels of architecture in their own local areas. However, the age of empires allowed the Persians and Greeks to also use the existing knowledge in the Iron Age to improve architecture and engineering. This was made pervasive by the Romans and expanded significantly over the years.
Conclusion: Ancient Egypt prospered through irrigation and they used the wealth to build temples and megastructures for pharaohs. They utilized technology but it was shrouded in mysticism and secrecy. The technology used was basic but with slave labor, they were able to construct major structures.
Introduction
When people think of Egypt, they often think of pyramids. However, Egypt’s architecture goes far beyond the pyramids and sphinxes that is known to the world of today. This includes temples, monuments, obelisks, pillars and other related matters like the papyrus for plotting and drawing maps and irrigation projects. Evidence shows that the first pyramids and major edifices were built around the year 2,600 BCE which is over 4,000 years ago. Clearly, all of this was done through the utilisation of technology which ensured the movement of heavy materials and sophisticated machinery. This was technology that was not common in that era, but the Ancient Egyptians were able to put it together and utilise it to build some of the greatest buildings in history.
The purpose of this research is to critically examine the ancient science and technology that was utilised in the architecture, engineering and organisation for the creation of the major buildings in Ancient Egypt. In order to attain this end, the following objectives will be explored:
The social organisation of Ancient Egypt and how it acted as impetus for major architectural projects;
The level of scientific that existed in Ancient Egypt and how it was harnessed for major projects;
The examination of the technology used for architecture and engineering for mega structures;
Impact of Ancient Egyptians on modern civilization. .
Social organisation of Ancient Egypt and Support for Civil Engineering
Technology can only be achieved as a means of resolving the main problems of a given society and this is commercialized and popularised throughout the nation in order to make it a part of the culture. This is because the need to change something lays the foundation for the society to modify and integrate new systems and processes to their activities.
Some theorists identify that Ancient Egypt’s technological advancement was due to the need for necessity and survival of the Egyptian people. This is because the Egyptian civilization is said to have grown around the Nile River and this thrived by harnessing the competency of the Nile through irrigation. The skills and technologies that were harnessed for the creation of irrigation processes in Ancient Egypt came up around 4,000 BC and predates the pyramids by over 1,000 years. The idea was to create a “black land” which was fertile all year long by using basic systems to direct the Nile tributaries to different farm lands and create systems of ensuring a constant supply of water to farms permanently. This meant that the ability to control the environment created the impetus for the Egyptian society to grow their population and also the confidence to control other forces of nature through technology and enhanced methods and systems of doing things.
The irrigation project of the Nile caused the birthrate of Egypt to increase significantly. This is because more food was available, famine could be easily controlled and people had the ability to gain a higher quality of life. Once this was achieved, Egypt was able to multiply its prosperity by increasing trade and enhancing the influence of the Egyptian empire by opening up and trading with other countries outside Egypt. Naturally, Ancient Egyptians were going to learn from these faraway lands and also improve their abilities to control affairs in their boundaries.
Ancient Egypt’s technology was advanced because it marked the beginning of the Bronze Age and all the people in other parts of the world were using stones when Ancient Egypt started using Bronze. This means that Ancient Egypt moved from the Stone Age in the period of building the irrigation systems and the use of Bronze hastened and enhanced the general social fibre of Egypt and made the people more prosperous and stronger in many ways and forms.
The Ancient Egyptian society was steeped in spirituality and the society had a lot of regard for their leaders (Pharaohs) who were viewed as gods and superhuman leaders who could link the physical world with the spiritual world. This is marked by the view that Egyptians were spiritual and placed a higher emphasis on spirituality on any other aspect of society. Thus, when the society became prosperous after years of major irrigation projects, the society invested in their spiritual and religious institutions. There was the need for building cities and these cities centered on temples and resting places of their leaders. This is because the leaders of the Ancient Egyptians and their close relatives were seen as people who interceded for the Egyptian society. Thus, keeping them preserved and ensuring their spirits are comfortably transported to the next world is a fundamental end of the civilizations.
In the quest to ensure a spiritual equilibrium, Ancient Egyptian society invested their efforts and abilities in the building of mega-structures to be used as temples and tombs for their leaders and for keeping spiritual and religious relics. This accounts for the reason why the Ancient Egyptians invested more of their resources into edifices and structures that were to last for hundreds of years without being affected by the weather and natural circumstances.
Science in Ancient Egypt & How they were applied to Architecture & Engineering
Science and technology developed rapidly in Ancient Egypt. The most significant area and aspect of Ancient Egypt that set it apart from civilizations that came before it was the fact that phonetic alphabets were developed from basic drawings and this was used as a means for promoting writing and documentation. Egyptologists identify that Ancient Egyptians wrote coded messages and contracts in forms that most people could not understand but this formed the basis and foundation for the development of alphabets and writing.
There was the development of the papyrus which was a plant that could be beaten into what is called paper today. Papyrus was a system that was used to document information and draw things that could be utilised in examining things and storing information that could be easily transferred from one expert to another. This helped in transferring knowledge and also for documenting important things like building plans and architecture.
Figure 1: Sample Papyrus Plant
Astronomy and architecture was considered a secret science in Ancient Egypt because it was limited only to the kings and royalty who were allowed to know and understand sciences that were somewhat sensitive to knowledge and science. Modern historians identify that architecture was linked to astronomy because there were beliefs that building structures in certain places linked the structure to the spiritual world better. Hence, there was the need for “wise men” and “spiritualists” to be kept who used their knowledge and ideas to create the foundation for interactions and buildings that could only lead to stronger spiritual connections.
The most important buildings and the most spiritually advanced structures were built in places that were considered sacred. These sacred buildings were to be landscaped in ways that will promote the spiritual ends and goals of the leaders. And this appears to be the mindset of members of the society. They attached importance to the spiritual things and studied what we will call empirical science in the context of spirituality.
Mathematics and geometry existed in Ancient Egypt because evidence from the tombs of major Pharaohs indicate that there were calculations of the number of sacrifices conducted and there have been evidence of fractions and other forms of geometry in some pyramids. This shows that there was a move towards geometry which forms the basis of architecture and calculations that were used to transmit instructions and information about the creation of tombs and other projects in Ancient Egypt.
Some researchers even go further to state that papyrus were found in various parts of the world at different points in time. There is evidence that various cities in Europe had papyrus that had information about mathematics and astronomy and geometry. This indicates that architecture and engineering’s core scientific knowledge and competencies were developed and enhanced over time. Thus, it is possible that scientists in Ancient Egypt had a way of sharing knowledge with their European counterparts. Knowledge in Ancient Egypt was however grown and it involved important skills and competencies.
Concerning the provision of middle-class managerial and professional services, there was an environment for the development of surveyors and other experts who could do the major construction work that is necessary and vital for the growth and institution of important processes and activities. Thus, sciences like surveying and architecture grew and was developed as a necessary part of achieving the goals of the pharaohs which was often meant to build new edifices at certain points in time.
Labor for the conduct of extremely difficult jobs was abundant. This is because in Ancient Egypt, slavery was common. Most people come into contact with Ancient Egypt through the Bible and this is linked to the enslavement of the Hebrews who were probably part of a many different groups of people who were enslaved. Due to the lack of human rights in the era of Ancient Egypt, it was possible slaves were worked to death in order to finish important edifices before specific deadlines. This is because most motivations for building was to implement science as a means of meeting spiritual goals. Spiritual goals were almost always seen as more important and more crucial than the need to protect human lives and ensure people are fine and alright.
Technology and Building of Megastructures in Ancient Egypt
The building of megastructures in Egypt was done through the combination of different factors of production within a context of a technology that was extremely advanced and ahead of its time. This was done in ways that included the utilisation of the natural environment and the movement of materials and tools for the achievement of results.
Structural engineering and civil engineering were far advanced in the time of Ancient Egypt. There was the process of organised work which included specialisation and the breakdown of work which was to ensure that different stages of work could be done in order to achieve optimal results and meet project management goals and expectations. Most authors identify that the nature of project management was steeped in the fact that construction teams were forced to work on these mega projects as a means to survive because where they failed, they were often executed for completing specific goals and objectives for a particular project. Thus, craftsmen had to work and ensure they could do things within specific timeframes.
The most logical way of meeting goals was to draw a conception of what had to be built and how it had to be built. This was often shrouded in mysticism and was often based on the requests of priests and other spiritualists who had major requirements and expectations based on specific spiritual goals. The engineers had to find ways of breaking down the work to ensure it could be completed within a stated timeframe. There was the need for a site to be identified and there was the need for logistics to be transported to the site. This required the use of mechanized systems and processes that could ensure that products could be moved onto the site.
The equipment were made of metal and this was at the height of the Bronze Age. Thus, the stones could be hewn to a specific level and standard. This was complemented by the use of some kind of binding agent which could be applied to ensure that a given building was established and erected with a high level of convenience.
Usually, a site was chosen that could be used as a place where an object of spiritual significance could be erected. This was followed by the extension of the Nile through an irrigation process to create a township and a place where water could be brought onto the site to aid in the actual building process. Also, there was a settlement that could be created for the laborers and workers who had to work on the sites and ensure that the instructions were followed and major forms of technology was applied.
The building of megastructures often required a lot of labor and effort. This included the presentation of important trends and processes that was used to cut stones and transport the stones. There is a mystery of how stones were transported onto sites in Ancient Egypt. Different authors had different speculations and explanations for how heavy stones and wood was moved around in the premises of megastructures in Ancient Egypt. One school of thought indicates that the Egyptians used a few simple machines like pulleys and a lot of human effort to move the stones and place them on each other. This is an assertion that most scientist find a bit difficult to believe because it is next to impossible for some of the heavy stones of some of the pyramids to be moved with human effort in any way or form. Others think that the heavy stones were moved through the use of some form of spiritual or supernatural power which enabled the Egyptians to understand the secret and remedies to gravity. Therefore, they were able to raise and move stones without having to suffer and work too hard. This is difficult to prove. Thus, there is only one conclusion that the building process was done through the use of human labor. With a lot of human effort, it is possible to lift the heaviest stone conceivable. And viewing the fact that the technology on building pyramids developed significantly over different centuries, it is possible the ability to move heavy equipment could be improved significantly over time.
Evidence also shows that there could be good quality ropes that could be created from date palm and this could be a major aspect of the construction process. If a rope could be created in Ancient Egypt that could be used in any way or form similar and no different to what any other rope in the 21st Century could do, then it is possible some of the greatest and heaviest loads could be moved on the fields without issues. Thus, with these forms of technology and the utilisation of basic and simple machines, the pyramids and huge temples could be built and utilised as a means of establishing major edifices.
Labor was generally provided by enslaved peoples and castes that were considered to be lower groups. These groups of people were treated with the harshest forms of cruelty and as such, it was likely they were kept only to provide slave labor and nothing else. In line with this, the slaves could be utilised and abused in ways that could lead to major deaths and other forms of complications without any recourse to sensitivity or wages. Therefore, with such attitudes and processes, there could be the provision of major services and the establishment of huge buildings with little or no effort to deal with the situation or provide the core goals and expectations.
In terms of metallurgy, Ancient Egypt seem to have been the pioneering civilization in history that instituted systems of getting a constant supply of metals. Evidence shows that Ancient Egyptians mined gold and other minerals in the south of present-day Egypt and modern Sudan. There were also import routes that linked Egypt to Persia and other advanced civilizations which had irons and other metals which were used in various ways to form machinery that was used in building the pyramids and other edifices in Ancient Egypt.
Figure 2: Ancient Egyptian Craftsmen conducting Interior Decoration of a Megastructure
After the buildings were completed, there were skilled craftsmen who did the interior design and the drawings that were meant to be utilised in the temples. Most of Ancient Egypt’s buildings were meant to pursue certain spiritual ends. Therefore, the utilisation of designs and drawings created a system whereby the workers were able to draw things that had significance to the facts and circumstances relating to the building and the spiritual associations to the god that was to be projected within the building.
Lessons from Ancient Egypt for Modern Architecture, Civil Engineering and Construction
Ancient Egypt’s structures of success were copied and transferred to the civilizations that came after them. The Israelites, Phoenicians and the Sumerians perfected the art of writing and opened it up to all speakers of their language. This was followed up by the Greeks and Persians who used the concepts of mathematics, geometry and architecture to form the basis for the design of new buildings and cities that formed the center of new civilisations that came after the Egyptian civilization fell.
Figure 3: Egyptian Column Was Modified and Used in Greek and Roman Architecture
The Persians and Greeks created an identity of empire which meant they had to use the new technology to build new cities within areas they expanded into. This led to a system of training workers to understand architecture and the inclusion of new technologies for engineering and construction. Transportation became an important part of architecture so it became a standard system to create roads and build better ships for the transmission of materials and equipment.
When the Iron Age came up, the technologies and systems of building structures grew and new methods of building were put in place. There were reinforcement and there was the need to create systems of gathering materials at a more convenient rate at a lower cost. The Romans came in and changed civil engineering completely. They built effective and efficient systems of producing things for construction and this laid the foundation for research and the development of new systems and processes that led to better systems of building and construction.
Conclusion
Ancient Egypt had a social system that was induced by the settling on the Nile Basin. This included the need to set up and undertake agriculture. The irrigation of the Nile gave the basis for production of more food and this led to a population boom. The Ancient Egyptian society was one that focused more on spirituality and their leaders in the Afterlife. Thus, there was the need to build temples and pyramids at the height of the prosperity of Ancient Egypt. Thus technology was confined to spiritualists and rulers and this include traces of mathematics and science. The development of the papyrus helped to transmit this information significantly and helped in building. Building was done with simple machines and a lot of slave labor. This included the need to adhere to rigid deadlines. Eventually, at the fall of the Egyptian Kingdom, new kingdoms established major systems for building and construction. This laid the foundation for modern technology.
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