Psychology of Gender
In the Chicago Tribune article Romney’s Case to Women Fails to Convince by Mary Sanchez (2012), the author reported how Mitt Romney failed to win the hearts – and probably the votes? – of the undecided American female voters by failing to address the concerns that are most important to them, such as equality, particularly in the workplace, and on issues such as contraception and abortion.
Although Mitt Romney can be applauded for being a doting husband and father, it’s not really something that would be relevant to most women, especially when many American women play the role of bread winners in their families. In fact, according to a survey conducted by Prudential Life, which was reported on the Huffington Post (Safdar, 2012), “majority of American women are now breadwinners in their households” (Safdar, 2012). More specifically, out of the 1,400 women who participated in the survey, 53% were the breadwinners in their families (Safdar, 2012) and among these women, 40% were either divorced or single. Of the married women in the survey, almost 25% claimed that they earned more than their husbands did (Safdar, 2012).
Indeed, the income gap between men and women have narrowed in recent years, which can be largely attributed to more women graduating from college than men and to women younger than 30 earning more than their male peers in majority of the largest cities in the U. S. It can also be attributed to women now comprising around half of the workforce. However, despite this improvement in women’s status, the Prudential Financial study showed that women still fell behind men when it came to confidence and financial literacy (Safdar, 2012).
Whereas 45% of the male breadwinners claimed that they felt capable of making financial decisions, only 23% of the female breadwinners did (Safdar 2012). Moreover, although inequality is now less of an issue, particularly among younger women, a gender salary gap still exists, which becomes wider with age. In particular women get paid only 77 cents for every dollar that a man makes for the same type of work. (Safdar, 2012). Similarly, female financial managers earn only 66 cents for every dollar that a male financial manager does. As well, for men and women with MBAs, a salary gap of 40% still exists even ten to fifteen years into their jobs.
Clearly, not every woman can appreciate or relate to having a good husband who can be a good provider. Rather, what they need more is to be empowered and to be treated as equals, which will allow them to become better able to fend for themselves and their families.
This is actually supported by the findings of Zentner & Mitura (2012) who conducted a study to determine how gender equality influenced the way that people chose their partners. Although previous research has shown that women by nature are wired to prefer men who are financially stable and thus, capable of supporting their would-be children and men tend to prefer younger women who are deemed more capable of bearing children, Zentner & Mitura (2012) investigated if these selection preferences for partners still remained true in gender-equal societies where gender differences in mental capabilities, such as in math performance, are diminishing.
In a survey that involved 3, 177 respondents from countries with varying levels of gender gap, these respondents were asked whether financial stability and domestic skills were important considerations in their choice of a sexual partner (Zentner & Mitura, 2012). The results showed that “the gender difference in the respondents’ preferences for sexual partners, as suggested by evolutionary psychology models, was highest in societies with higher levels of gender inequality and lowest in societies with lower levels of gender inequality. These results were confirmed in another study that the researchers conducted, which involved 8,953 volunteers from 31 countries (Zentner & Mitura, 2012).
This latter study also showed that there were fewer differences between the preferences of men and women in more gender-equal countries than in less gender-equal countries. Although the researchers did not completely rule out the propositions made by evolutionary psychologists, their findings did show that men’s and women’s preferences for sexual partners may not be as inherent as originally thought.
More importantly, these findings implied that the attitudes and behaviors of individuals can change in order to enable them to better respond to social changes. This in turn shows that societal beliefs and norms are flexible and as such, leaders and would-be leaders should be able to recognize, acknowledge, and address these changes. With women gaining more equality within our society, they no longer want to be perceived as the weaker sex who would only depend on their male partners.
This can also be associated to the social structural approach (Rudman & Glick, 2012), which is used to explain gender differences and gender roles.
Structural explanations suggest that the social positions of groups within society and the structure of intergroup relationships determine perceptions of and behavior toward members of differing social groups. Social position refers to the roles and occupations members of a group typically perform and their place in status and power hierarchies. The structure of intergroup relationships refers to how situational context shapes intergroup relations. [. . .] In short, power disparities and interdependence motives represent structural variables that permeate and inform all intergroup relations, including gender (Rudman & Glick, 2012, p. 18).
relations, in the observed sex differences in behaviors and traits, and in the content of gender stereotypes.
Clearly, gender roles have shifted in recent years, as evidenced by the fact that there are now more female than male American breadwinners (Safdar, 2012). No longer are women merely the mothers or caretakers of the home. They have now become providers, too, a role that was typically and traditionally held by men. With these new and atypical roles that women are starting to assume in their struggle to cope with the times, it would then be helpful for them that they are given the resources and opportunities that would enable them to compete on equal footing in a world – particularly the labor market – that is dominated by men. As such, potential country leaders such as Barack Obama and Mitt Romney should be able to demonstrate how they can provide women with opportunities that would empower them and that would make the gender gap smaller.
In another study conducted by Mark Brandt of DePaul University (Brandt, 2011), he investigated the consequences of the beliefs of people with regards to how the world should function and how the world does function. For his study on sexism, he conducted a survey from 2005 to 2007 where the survey included the following statements as a measurement of sexism: On the whole, men make better business executives than women do and On the whole, men make better political leaders than women do (Brandt, 2011). As an additional measure, Brandt also used a United Nations measure of gender inequality.
The results of Brandt’s study showed a direct association between sexism and gender inequality, which implies that individual beliefs don’t just stay within the person; rather, they can affect the way that a society functions (Brandt, 2011). In other words, Brandt’s findings dispel the notion that prejudiced or sexist beliefs are a personal thing that doesn’t have an impact on others (Brandt, 2011). On the contrary, Brandt suggests that if the individuals in a society are sexist then the men and women in that society will become less equal (Brandt, 2011). This further implies that if equality were to be achieved then individual attitudes would have to change.
In relating that to the recently concluded U.S. presidential campaign, it was quite obvious what the two candidates’ individual beliefs were. Obama, on one hand, addressed issues that had more impact towards women than men – issues such as contraception and unequal pay. His enactment of the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act served as further testament to where his sentiments lay (Sanchez, 2012). On other hand, such comments from Romney as “binders full of women” showed his discomfort at addressing the issues that were important to women (Sanchez, 2012). Sanchez (212) further noted that the said comment was actually made in Romney’s effort to avoid a question on equal pay. Instead of directly addressing the question, Romney highlighted his efforts of hiring female Cabinet members while he was the governor of Massachusetts.
It is clear that Obama empathized with and understands the issues that women face. On the other hand, Romney, while not a sexist, wasn’t able to clearly communicate where he stood with regards to women’s issues. With the findings of Brandt’s (2011) study in consideration, it would be implied that these candidates’ individual beliefs would affect the society and the country as a whole. Surely, their individual beliefs would affect the policies that they would make and the manner by which they would address national concerns. While it would be clear to American female voters that Obama has plans to address their needs, the vague answers provided by Romney likewise gave the female voters a vague glimpse of their future should Romney be seated as president.
There’s a reason, too, for women to feel strongly about gender equality issues. In a study conducted by Hopcroft & Bradley (Chrisler, McReary & Chrisler, 2010) where they examined the relationship between gender differences and depression, it was found that the highest levels of depression existed in cultures where there is low gender equality (Chrisler et al., 2010). However, the study also showed that the largest gap in the levels of depression – which was higher in women – existed in cultures with high gender equality.
Undeniably, women are under a lot of pressure and stress to provide for themselves and their families, as well as to fulfill their roles as caretakers of the home and the caregivers of their loved ones. These are only some of the causes of depression among women, which are further aggravated by the lack of resources that’s available to them, as well as by the discrimination, prejudice, and stereotyping that they must constantly endure. For the single and divorced women, especially, it would be understandable that they would look to the government for support.
That said, the message of a potential leader who passionately talks about women’s causes and issues and how he plans to address them would no doubt receive a better reception than the message from a potential leader who seems to have no clue about women’s concerns, let alone how to address them. With the daily struggles that women go through, which can have adverse effects on their physical, mental, and social well-being, it can be presumed that they would prefer a leader who can help alleviate their difficulties.
Lastly, potential leaders of the United States should recognize that feminism is not a recent occurrence but that it has existed throughout history where, for example, Native American groups appointed women to powerful roles and where pioneer women and enslaved women exhibited traits, which were typically associated to men (Chrisler & McHugh, 2011). Such traits included fortitude, courage, and strength. Indeed, women have made many contributions in both the society and in politics throughout American history.
With the emergence of the various waves of feminism also came the empiricist feminists who aimed determine gender differences based on empirical evidence. It would be interesting to note Hyde’s assertion that “gender similarities are more common than gender differences” (Chrisler & McHugh, 2011, p. 43) and Eagly’s argument that “differences, though substantial, are the result of social roles, not biology” (Chrisler & McHugh, 2011, p. 43).
These feminists assert that gender differences are not so much innate as they are promoted and reinforced by society. They imply that gender differences are caused by societal beliefs and societal structures. In time, these beliefs turn into stereotypes that are eventually mistaken as truths.
Given that gender differences are instigated by societal norms and beliefs then the leader of a powerful nation such as the United States can surely do something to reshape or at least influence those norms and beliefs so that the so-called gender differences may be reduced, if not entirely eliminated.
The feminist standpoint approach asserts that the identity or position of an individual impacts how they know the world. The feminist standpoint theory emphasizes that women and men view the world from different positions. Men have an androcentric, or male-centered way, of seeing the world, and they have often mistaken that view as objective. As a result of their position as subordinated or marginalized individuals, women provide a corrective and more complete perspective on the systems of male dominance. (Chrisler & McHugh, 2011, p. 44).
Surely, the future leader of a great nation such as the United States would be capable of helping these women achieve, promote, and sustain that balance.
Conclusion
Although the United States is seeing a smaller gap between the male and female genders, it stands that inequality still remains, particularly in the workplace. With more women now assuming the role of breadwinners than men, these inequalities only serve to aggravate the difficulties and struggles that they already go through. As such, it cannot be denied that gender equality issues remain to be an ongoing battle for American women.
With the recently concluded presidential campaign and elections in the United States, Sanchez (2012), in her article, Romney’s Case to Women fails to convince, described how the opposing candidates, Barack Obama and Mitt Romney, addressed women’s issues during their campaign. Whereas Obama appeared to be passionate and clear about his stand with regards to women’s issues and how he planned to address them, Romney seemed unaware of these issues and unsure about how to address them , given the lack of clarity in his responses.
It is important to have an understanding of the psychology of women, especially on political endeavors such as the U.S. presidential campaigns. After all, women make up a large part of the electorate and for a leader to be successful – both during the elections and his actual term – he should be able to obtain the support and confidence of his female constituents.
Women are no longer the weaker sex. The struggles of the times have made them stronger and more empowered. However, society is still bound by its old beliefs and prejudices, which have long been outdated. These obsolete beliefs and value systems are what hold women back and restrict them from living their life to the fullest and from coexisting on equal terms with men.
References
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