Intro
Basically, the idea that the world is not a random and chaotic mass of things, but a harmoniously ordered unity exists in accordance with certain laws at the heart of the Buddhist philosophy. The Dharma is the universal and eternal order that preserves and retains the integrity of the world. That is why the Dharma is a key concept in the complex system of Buddhism. The Dharma is the way and the law at the same time. It is a way to improve and complete enlightenment. If one analyzes this concept literally and in more detail, it becomes evident that it does not have its equivalent or an accurate translation in other languages and cultures (Ingram, 2008, p. 43). It is possible to comprehend it in full only if a person knows the importance of Sanskrit. Based on original concepts, the word "Dharma" can be translated from Sanskrit as a "way of life", "path" or "destiny" (Ingram, 2008, p. 43). It is quite difficult to give a unique and unambiguous definition to this concept, and most of the books devoted to Buddhism leave it without translation. Nevertheless, it is clear that the Dharma, as already said, is a key concept in Buddhism, which includes a plurality of different aspects. In general, the Dharma is a path and a single law, a universal and eternal order that preserves and retains the integrity of the material world, i.e. it is a virtue and a path of piety.
The Four Noble Truths and Their Relevance Today
The first thing to understand in the study of Buddhism is the concept of the Four Noble Truths. This concept includes the basic principles and teachings of Buddhism, and anyone who begins his/her journey of learning and education is guided by these Truths. Therefore, "The Four Noble Truths can be considered the doctrine of the cause-dependent origin of all life and Karma" (Ingram, 2008, p. 137). In addition, this teaching includes such doctrines as anatmavada and kshanika vada; the first doctrine includes the doctrine of the soul, while the second one is the doctrine of the moment (Ingram, 2008, p. 138). Moreover, the Four Noble Truths include the Buddhist cosmology. All Buddhists believe that these principles were proclaimed by the Buddha himself, but if Theravadan (i.e. "hinayanist") find their full and final truth, most Mahayanists consider them just some conditionally true position enunciated by the Buddha in the "propaedeutic purpose" to prepare students for the perception of the higher order, such as the identity of samsara and nirvana, or the presence of the Buddha nature of all living beings (Ingram, 2008, p. 345). Nevertheless, one should begin the consideration of the Buddhism teachings with them. The Four Noble Truths are a language that can be compared with the doctor's wording, which puts the patient diagnosis and prescribe treatment. This metaphor is not accidental, because the Buddha saw himself as a doctor for living beings, who was called to heal them from the suffering of samsara and prescribe treatment, leading to recovery – i.e. nirvana. "The liberation from personal suffering, also called “nirvana,” enables the meditator to experience a stable, profound peace of mind even in the midst of suffering, even death" (Surname, 2016a, p. 1).
Indeed, the first Truth, which is called the Truth of suffering, makes a diagnosis and confirms it (Surname, 2016a, p. 2). Buddha came to the conclusion that all people are inevitably going to die: there are happy moments, as well as there are sad years that pass very quickly. "There is basic suffering that comes with the impermanence of all things and relationships: losing what one has is inevitable" (Surname, 2016a, p. 2). The good does not last forever and, therefore, the first step on the path of Buddhism is the realization that life in fact is nothing more than a pain. That is why it leads to a certain self-liberation. At first, it seems that this description is an example of the negative thinking, however, the Buddha does not regard suffering as a final conclusion, the suffering actually serves as the starting point (Ingram, 2008, p. 47). By selecting this point, the Buddha offers a specific set of cure of suffering. The second truth, which is called the Origin of Suffering, indicates the cause of the disease (Surname, 2016a, p. 2). For instance, one can draw a parallel with the etiology and pathogenesis in the modern medicine. It is known that human's suffering has one main, central cause: "from the Buddha’s teaching, the origin of suffering is the ego, defined by attachment and fixation on things and ideas that give us an illusory sense of identity and security" (Surname, 2016c, p. 1). Therefore, it is a desire. At the same time, the Buddha does not call the person to do away with all desires. He calls only to get rid of selfish desires that are based on the wrong vision of the man himself and the world. "Ordinarily, all beings cling to a limited notion of self, our “ego” (Surname, 2016a, p. 2). It is this vision of wrong leads to human suffering. The more a person seeks to satisfy his or her ego, the more his or her ego becomes limited and demanding. Anyway, human's desires cannot be satisfied in full. A person will always lack something. That is what leads a person to the disappointment throughout life. "Thus, clinging to attachments is the origin of all suffering" (Surname, 2016a, p. 2). The third truth of the cessation of suffering is forecast, or an indication of the possibility of recovery, healing, i.e. nirvana. "Nirvana, which is the cessation of individual suffering, is possible. It is possible to see through the illusions of ego" (Surname, 2016a, p. 3). All suffering can end. That suffering gives a person the opportunity to look inside him- or herself in order to know oneself. Understanding of this truth requires a certain inner transformation. The fourth truth, which is called "the Truth of the Path", is something like the prescribed course of treatment for the patient (Surname, 2016a, p. 3). Where there is a problem, there is its decision. All problems in humans are created by themselves and primarily live within them. Thus, from the very beginning of its existence, Buddhism was a kind of transformation of suffering and unfortunate human beings into free and perfect beings. This project has a therapeutic, psychotherapeutic nature, and the Buddha Shakyamuni was its creator or discoverer (Ingram, 2008, p. 56).
As for the relevance of these Four Noble Truths today, one can say a lot about it. Undoubtedly, the Buddhist worldview has defied many different changes over the centuries, however, some aspects of the doctrine has been transformed as well. For example, most people know only about the concepts such as karma, Nirvana, and Samsara. At the same time, few people understand their true significance and importance. It is difficult to talk about something specific in terms of the Four Noble Truths. It can be said that the doctrine and the path to enlightenment begin with them, but very few people can organize and combine them into the single knowledge. This fact relates strictly to the European and Western thought. "The Western mainstream" invented the therapeutic treatments of the various "mental" illnesses, the essence of which included a number of Buddhist ideas (Ingram, 2008, p. 180). That is, if one sums up the relevance of the Four Noble Truths today, it would be possible to conclude that they are quite relevant today, even though their form has changed to a certain extent.
The Concepts of Karma and Rebirth, and the Main Obstacles on the Way to Get Rid of Suffering
Buddhism emphasizes the connection of life with suffering in a much greater extent than other religions do. Moreover, in Buddhism, suffering is a fundamental characteristic of being as such. However, "the Buddha did not want people to feel bad about their imperfections, rather people should learn from their imperfections" (Surname, 2016b, p. 2). This suffering is not the result of the fall into sin and the loss of the original paradise. Like the being itself, suffering has no beginning and is immutable; it is accompanied by the manifestations of life. Of course, Buddhists do not deny the fact that life is filled with the good moments associated with pleasure, but that pleasure itself is not the opposite of suffering, as it is included in suffering, being its aspect: "all sentient beings experience suffering" (Surname, 2016a, p. 2). The fact that none of the possible states is vital for humans is entirely satisfactory. The cause of suffering in Buddhism is the attraction, desire, attachment to life in the broadest sense, the will to live, the ego itself: "from the Buddha’s teaching, the origin of suffering is the ego, defined by attachment and fixation on things and ideas that give us an illusory sense of identity and security" (Surname, 2016c, p. 1). This attraction is understood Buddhism as widely as possible, because this concept includes disgust as the flip side of the inclination. Thus, the desire for a pleasant and aversion to unpleasant that are expressed in the appropriate reactions and motivations lie at the heart of life. This attraction is based on a fundamental misconception or ignorance, which is reflected in the failure to understand that the essence of life is suffering (Ingram, 2008, p. 346). Inclination gives rise to suffering, if there were no instincts and thirst for life, then there would be no suffering. And life is governed by the law of karma.
That is, one can say that attraction is the main obstacle on the way to get rid of suffering. The doctrine of karma is the doctrinal core of Buddhism. The word "karma" can be translated as "work" or "action" (Ingram, 2008, p. 87). It means any act, or act in the broadest sense of the word, i.e. the physical act, an act of verbal and mental act. Thus, karma is an action and always has a consequence or a result. The totality of all acts performed in a life, or rather, the total energy of these actions, also brings its fruit. It identifies the need for the next birth, a new life, the nature of which is determined by karma, i.e. the nature of the actions of the deceased (Ingram, 2008, p. 89). Hence, karma may be good or not good, that is leading to good or bad forms of birth. In a new life, a person commits actions leading him or her to a new birth again, and so on and so forth. This cycle of births and deaths in the religions of India (not only in Buddhism) is called samsara, the main characteristic of which is the suffering resulting from the instincts and desires (Ingram, 2008, p. 346). There are two main sources of suffering: the darken actions and the impurity (Ingram, 2008, p. 346). The impurity implies the peripheral factors that profane consciousness. Thus, consciousness comes under its influence, and thus, accumulates a bad effect. The impurity includes selfish desire, anger, pride, false views, etc. This attachment to oneself arises from the fact that the mind clings to one's "I", which is due to lack of knowledge about the nature of things (Ingram, 2008, p. 92). According to Buddhist tradition, things and human do not have an independent reality: "people filter information, distort what they experience, and usually rely on habits. The usual approach to experience is soaked in habitual mental patterns" (Surname, 2016c, p. 1). However, all things are devoid of independent existence, i.e., they are empty. Consequently, the concept that states that phenomena have an independent reality is a taint of ignorance, which is the primary root of the impurity. It turns out that things like desire, anger, and defilement are the main obstacles on the way to get rid of suffering. Therefore, karma has a direct relation to any obstacles to this deliverance, as it defines the essence of rebirth. The concepts of karma and reincarnation are inseparable in Buddhism. Thus, according to the teachings of Buddhism, each person is nothing more than a temporary combination of beginningless and endless components. This personality is like a ribbon, woven from beginningless and endless yarns. When a death comes, the fabric with a certain pattern unravels, but the same threads connect again in a new cloth with a new pattern. The countless threads of Dharma represent the very basis. In the Buddhist teaching, rebirth is not a transmigration of a soul in a new body, it is literally a rebirth. The purpose of Buddhist salvation does not lie in a break of the dharmas combinations that make up a person in a certain cycle of rebirth, but a termination of any kind of a combination. Karma is a force that connects the threads of the base. The threads will stop weave with the elimination of karma action. The doctrine of karma is a part of the traditional Indian philosophy (Ingram, 2008, p. 96). Buddhism only developed the concept of karma and strengthened its ethical orientation. Karma is a kind of an impersonal force of nature that operates steadily and embodies the law of causality. That is, if one talks about rebirth, it is impossible to say that a human and his or her soul after death move to a new body or in any subject. Everything is much more complicated. It turns out that dharma and is involved in regeneration after the death (Ingram, 2008, p. 352).
Conclusions
Buddhism is one of the oldest religions of the world, the most ancient and complex worldview, which includes a set of concepts and forms. For example, the Dharma, which serves as a kind of foundation for the development of a mature personality, can be regarded as the fundamental concept of Buddhism. The Four Noble Truths lie on this foundation too. However, it is necessary to clearly understand that life itself and everything that is a part of it is a kind of one big obstacle to the attainment of nirvana. There is a concept of rebirth of all living beings, which is due to karma. Hence, karma affects the dharma of each person and is determined by the level of enlightenment in accordance with its purity. The essence of Buddhism is in the endless rebirth inside the wheel of Samsara in order to get rid of suffering, in which a man dwells from the beginning of birth until death. One should follow the Uniform Law or discover their dharma in order to get rid of suffering and attain the Buddhahood.
References
Ingram, D. (2008). Mastering the Core Teachings of the Buddha. London, GB: Aeon Books. Retrieved from http://www.ebrary.com
The Lecturer's Surname, Name. (2016a). "The Buddhist Religious Tradition. Class 2." Religious Studies 2327.1. Name of the University, City. 20 Jun. 2016.
The Lecturer's Surname, Name. (2016b). "The Buddhist Religious Tradition. Class 3." Religious Studies 2327.1. Name of the University, City. 20 Jun. 2016.
The Lecturer's Surname, Name. (2016c). "The Buddhist Religious Tradition. Class 4." Religious Studies 2327.1. Name of the University, City. 20 Jun. 2016.
