The Meaning of Anomie
The term anomie is a concept developed in the field of sociology to apply to a condition where there is a breakdown of social norms and regulation in society. Anomie, or the absence of norms as expounded by the sociologist Emile Durkheim, prevails when individuals are left without moral guidance and society has little influence to compel individuals to follow rules and norms (Education Portal). There is then a disconnect between individuals and the collective society. Anomie theory is therefore seen as explaining deviance in society. The rise of crime can then be considered in this light. Anomie theory has influenced sociological thought as well as forayed into the discipline of criminology.
Durkheim’s Anomie Theory
Anomie theory saw its beginnings with the theoretical writings of Jean Marie Guyau, although the term is traced to Ancient Greece. Guyau introduced the concept to sociological literature in the 19th century, influencing Durkheim whose body of works, namely in Suicide published in 1897, argue that social facts are properties of society than of individual members of society. Examples of social facts are divorce, crime or suicide which Durkheim viewed as external to individuals. Durkheim argues that variations in suicide rates can only be explained by the social environment that exerts external influences on individuals, and not by psychological elements (Cliffsnotes). In his book, Suicide, Durkheim identified anomie as among the four distinct socio-environmental conditions that explained high suicide rates. For Durkheim, anomie is the environmental state where social regulation or constraints fail to control the goals and desires of individual members. Individual happiness is dependent on society’s ability to impose external limits on the unlimited passion and appetites of individuals. Anomie’s absence of these external norms removes the disciplining action of society on human nature.
Merton’s Strain Theory
Robert Merton, who is known for developing the Strain Theories which have embedded the anomie concept, builds on the work of Durkheim in his (Merton’s) Social Structure and Anomie. Merton popularizes the view that human needs and desires are a product of a social process called cultural socialization (Baumer, Anomie). This means cultural values influence individuals to pursue economic success in their life, for instance. Merton would argue that American society is predisposed environmentally to pursue economic gain because of its prevalent materialistic values. In addition, American cultural beliefs sustain the notion that anyone can succeed in the pursuit of economic goals.
Strain theory is the offshoot of anomie theory in that Durkheim viewed crime as a result of the breakdown of social forces (Baumer, Anomie). Durkheim’s theory of social modernization proposes the progression of societies from mechanical to organic solidarity. Crime is seen as normal in mechanical societies and punishing criminals maintain social solidarity. In organic society, the function of law is to regulate the interactions of various parts of the whole of society. It is when this regulation breaks down or is inadequate that social problems arise. Crime is among them. Strain theory looks at structural strain as those processes where the absence of regulation at the society level influences how individuals perceive their needs. Individual strain is the adjustment experienced by the individual as explore avenues to satisfy their aspirations.
Merton’s anomie-based strain theory, known as the means-end theory of deviance, submits that crime, or deviant behavior, is the outcome of the gap between cultural emphasis on economic success and the social structure (O’Conner, Strain Theories of Crime). Merton’s strain theory assumes a uniform aspiration for economic success across social classes, and explains that crime is common among the lower social classes which have the least opportunity for achievement. While the system can be stabilized by providing rewards for non-economic pursuits, imperfect coordination of means and ends limit the effectiveness of the social structure to regulate and predict deviant behavior and society maintains a condition of anomie or chaos.
Cohen, Cloward and Ohlin’s Strain Theory
Other sociologists have contributed their own variant of the Strain theory. Among these is Cohen’s strain theory that proposed that subcultures such as malice and negativism lead to class-based frustration (O’Connor, Strain Theories of Crime). Cohen points out that Merton’s theory does not explain purposeless crime. Rather, Cohen focuses on school-based achievement status which props up middle-class values as honesty, responsibility, courtesy. Competition is engendered in this environment and young people battle for status, approval or respect. For Cohen, strain is interpersonal rather than structural, and is found at the level of group interaction.
On the other hand, Cloward and Ohlin’s Strain theory puts emphasis on intervening variables that explain the ways serious crime and deviance take place (O’Connor, Strain Theories). Blocked access to illegitimate and legitimate opportunities is viewed as a logical follow-through of Merton’s theory. Illegitimate opportunities represent not only a chance to justify a criminal act but involves embracing the beliefs necessary for sub-cultural support. Cloward and Ohlin believe that while many individuals yearn for the middle-class lifestyle, others simply want money without improving their lifestyle or changing their social class membership. It is these types that are under pressure to be criminal and deviant because of their desire for economic success in terms of having money and spending conspicuously. Accordingly, the gap these individuals face with regard to their aspirations and lifestyle predicts their involvement in serious crimes (O’Connor, Strain Theories).
Social Control Mechanisms
The variations of theory related to anomie suggest a number of social controls explaining the perspective. Merton would focus on high economic aspirations of people, and links social class aspirations independent to the commission of crime. Studies would suggest that high aspirations such as income, education and occupational goals combined with low expectations of meeting these goals provide the fundamental measure of strain (O’Connor, Strain Theories). Research has attempted to show education as the more explanatory variable than income. Other studies have submitted a case for occupational goals and income as the more appropriate measure of strain.
Bibliography
Baumer, Eric. 2010. Anomie. <http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195396607/obo-9780195396607-0006.xml.>
CliffsNotes. 2014. How Does Anomie Theory Explain Deviant Behavior. <http://www.cliffsnotes.com/cliffsnotes/sciences/how-does-anomie-theory-explain-deviant-behavior.>
Education Portal. 2014. Emile Durkham’s Theories: Function, Anomie and Division of Labor. < http://education-portal.com/academy/lesson/emile-durkheims-theories-functionalism-anomie-and-division-of-labor.html#lesson.>
O’Connor, T. 2013. Strain Theories of Crime. Megalinks in Criminal Justice. <http://www.drtomoconnor.com/1060/1060lect06.htm.>
The Anomie Tradition: Explaining Rates of Deviant Behavior <http://deviance.socprobs.net/Unit_3/Theory/Anomie.htm>
