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All Sciences, whether Physical, Social, or a combination of the two (like Anthropology), are based on hypotheses and theories. Some of the unlikeliest scientific theories have arisen from hypotheses that were considered insane at one point.
In the world of Anthropology, the situation is no different. At one point, any supposition that the earth had been formed over billions of years rather than created in a biblical manner was considered criminal. Governments were so thrown apart by statements like this that people were decried as heretics, beheaded or sent into exile. These scientists went against what was mainstream thinking up until and even after the life of Charles Darwin. Even today, throughout the world, there are still more strict Creationists than those who accept that evolution may have played a hand. With this in mind, we have creations throughout the world that seemingly arose from nothing, and there is still little Anthropological evidence to provide solid answers. Searching for the truths behind marginal and mysterious cases like Plato’s Atlantis, The American Snake Mounds, and the structures of Eastern Island can give us insight into how we may have misjudged how advanced society has been for longer than we thought.
Atlantis is a city written about by Plato over two millennia ago. It has led to ongoing debates ever since Plato wrote the story. He is the only source we have regarding this possible city. For a very long time, it was considered nothing more than a fantastical myth that was always fun conversation. It was rarely considered more than that. Then, in the 19th Century, evidence of not just one, but many now underground cities have emerged. This supports reports of a great deluge in the Mediterranean area, accounts of which were documented by more than just Plato. Egyptians, Jews, and Romans all have documented accounts of this flood. There is also evidence of a flood that hit Spain and Ireland around the time that these floods were reported. There, however, does not seem to be as much evidence on the other side of the Atlantic. Certainly no written accounts, but little in the way of physical evidence.
We know that Plato wrote of the island of Atlantis in 360 BCE. Report of a flood range from 800 BCE to 500 BCE in which this civilization was destroyed. There are also many accounts of a sea people existing before the floods from around 1200 BCE. It was found in Ancient Egyptian accounts, notoriously nonfictional even by today’s standards. There are comparable reports of these seemingly advanced people by the Cypressians and the Levant (Kuehne, 2004). The main hypothesis here is based on satellite images of Southern tip of Spain, around 100 miles away from where Plato eluded to the island being. There are clear indications of very large buildings and circular housing rings, or neighborhoods, in the area that is now a Spanish national park. Kuehne is hoping that people will obtain the necessary permits to start a dig within the national park.
Very recently, an underground city was discovered near Greece, that existed as long ago as 2500 BCE and as early as 500 BCE, around the middle of the Bronze Age and beginning of the beginning of the Iron Age (Pruitt, 2015 and University of Geneva, 2015) Physical evidence and photos from University of Geneva document this discovery. The city was well defended, had large structures, and circular houses or neighborhoods (that is not a typo, that is a pattern). This is an active area of Archaeological and Anthropological research, though there has been a temporary halt due to mass migrations from Syria by sea. The consensus is swiftly changing to Plato referring to not just one city, but an entire civilization that may have existed beyond the Mediterranean or Baltic, a thought not considered to be factual at the time of Plato’s existence.
It is more than worth noting that many scientists reject an Atlantis hypothesis outright, without any consideration of evidence. As far out there as these hypotheses may seem, there seems to be more than enough evidence to warrant future research, and shows that these rejecters might be losing their passion for the scientific method altogether if they are so willing to drop a hypothesis on its face just because of what it suggests — that we still do not know everything.
An anthropological discovery that cannot be denied is the existence of the American Snake Mounds. To date, probably the most anthropological explanations of these mounds are two-fold, that of the Paleo-Indian Tribes that came across the Siberian-Alaskan Land Bridge tens of thousands of years ago, and that of evidence for the existence of Israel’s twelve tribes somehow existing parallel to the actual ancient Hebrew tribes. One is a theory based on Scientific and Cultural Evidence, the other is a theory based entirely in religious belief, and is actually one of the founding principles of the Mormon faith. One is based entirely in Scientific evidence of what we know about these tribes, the other is steeped in Social evidence, and is surprisingly well-reasoned, even if there is no real science behind it. For the sake of Anthropological research, both of these theories need to be treated equally, because both theories have what the other one lacks. At least right now.
In the Indian theory, the Paleo-Indians came over to America around 15,000 years ago. This was during an age when the Bering Strait was still solid ground. Over the next 8,000 years, these Paleo- Indians gave rise to a second group of Indians, known as the Archaic Indians, these Indians came into prominence 7,000 to 8,000 years ago and are thought to be the earliest mound builders. These mounds were small and primarily used as grave sites, suggesting that spiritual rites were practiced far earlier than any modern day religion. Eventually, the Archaic Indians began to splinter off into even more distinct tribes. The Woodland Archaic tribe became the premier users of mounds, built large burial sites for their dead. These mounds can be found all over the woodland areas of North America, but were focused in Ohio (Hoagstrom, 2000)
Further cultural outspread occurred when the Adena Tribe formed around 700 BCE. A couple hundred years later, the Hopewell tribe emerged. The two tribes seemed to differ because of what their dead were buried with, along with the craftsmanship of the mounds themselves. The Adena tribe was considered egalitarian, meaning that everybody was treated equally, perhaps even the chiefs of the separate tribes throughout their lands. They were often all buried together in similar mounds.
The Hopewell tribes seemed to have an advanced class system, and those who were the wealthiest, or held to the highest esteem, were often buried in more ornate, more intricate mounds. The more esteemed people were allowed to be buried with their weapons or special effects. The Hopewell tribe seems to have separate ties to the Archaic Indians, though the intermediaries are often disagreed upon, some say Sioux, some say Cherokee; there are 5 tribes which claim blood-ties with the Hopewell.
Out of these tribes, came the Mississippians, who by far had the most sophisticated mounds to date, often placing temples or other structures above the mounds. A combination of these three tribes became known as the Mound Building tribes, and eventually the mounds became so intricate and geometrically detailed, that many believe they could not have been created without divine intervention. These tribes lasted until around 1500 CE, and a short few hundred year later, claims that god’s chosen people had decided to pay the Americas a visit, to be fair to the people living there. Most Mormons believe that this was the second coming of Christ. Still many also agree that Jesus is the God of this planet, and that the mound builders, along with gods from other planets, existed as a result of theological redemption.
Both theories offer great Anthropological insights. On the one hand, we have a wonderful path of research to find out more about the tribes that existed here long before the White European, to construct long mounds, shaped geometrically and aesthetically pleasing Snake-shaped hills. How did they develop the mathematical techniques used to devise symmetrical shapes? Very little evidence exists, if any, that they had compasses, sun-dials, anything other than landmarks and solar/lunar positions to plan things out. Still, how did these constructions, that took place as late as 8,000 years ago, take place? In and around these sites, there have been massive un of pottery weapons, various types of housing. We can also assume that no significant extinction events took place during this relatively short time in Earth’s history, because the digs have been consistent with depth and population growth. This is, in turn, consistent with the Quaternary event that occurred during the mass migration of humans across the land bridge 15,000 years ago, probably the original reason that the Paleo-Indians arrived here, the over-hunting of already sparse animal populations in the Siberian region (Koch and Barnosky, 2006).
The other theory, being mostly faith based, is not really testable. Most Mormons believe in one of two different types of Lamanite heritage, one of the original 12 tribes of Israel. There is no DNA evidence to link any American Indian group, past or present, to the Middle East other than through an earlier or different ancestor. Their closest genetic neighbors are nomads from Central Asia. This means that American Indian ancestors could have literally come from anywhere else but the Middle East, or from where the Lamanites are known to have existed. The other major theory, largely in response to these findings is that a different Israeli tribe moved to Central Asia after Jesus has died in Israel, and was resurrected once they occupied America. Once again, even logic defies this logic, but that is what faith usually is.
Needless to say, there is not much more research to do here, other than to study the religion of the LDS as one of North America’s first Christian Doctrine to claim that Jesus had a physical lineage here, even if there is still not really any evidence other than the Bible to suggest that he ever existed.
The final case worth investigating are structures like the ones that exist in Easter Island. But what Anthropological findings can we possibly discover if we cannot even establish a society in which to explore? The evidence points to the support of an Atlean-like sea-society, with a resourcefulness of the natural surroundings and a geometrical understanding similar to that of the Native Americans. DNA evidence suggests that there is a small fractional existence of Native American blood that can be traced back to whenever Polynesian sea-people settled the island. Maybe this plays a part in the rising of gigantic faces sculptures made of volcanic material and basalt. The details, however, are what make this such an interesting case.
There are several hypotheses about Easter Island. The current findings are all over the map, sometimes literally, when it comes to specific information, but there are some hypotheses that go fairly undisputed. They hold that the Polynesian people came upon Rapa Nui (Easter Island) sometime between 700 and 1100 CE. This is based primarily on carbon dating of the gigantic, 33 foot moai, or statues, that were made of volcanic rock and Basalt. It gets trickier from there though. The most widely accepted hypothesis also seems to have the most troubling inconsistencies, and, if nothing else, shows how little has been invested in this research.
According to this hypothesis, right before the appearance of Europeans in 1722, the population had decreased to 3,000 people from a high of 15,000. The 15,000 number is completely erroneous. There is speculation that the food system had been eaten out of by Easter Island’s inhabitants (Pakandam, 2009), and Polynesian rats, also implausible, as the only migrants in possibly a thousand years were from Europe. As a result, the eastern Islanders resulted to cannibalism and had decreased their population more. The rest of Easter Island’s history is documented.
Peru eventually captured most men and some women for the slave trade of South America, leaving mostly older men who no longer procreated, and their grandchildren did not yet have the strength. This would be great, but it is also very unlikely. There’s no explanation of how the volcanic statues were moved anywhere across the island. It also did not explain that some of the statues that were made of basalt, when no basalt quarries are observable. No interviews were ever conducted. The report that the initial Dutch discoverers gave was very interesting and insightful, however.
They claimed that the men of the island were over 13 feet tall, though the women were much shorter, only 10 feet tall. Was this true and accurate reporting? No, probably not, though it is certainly possible that they were much larger on stronger than the Dutch. If one looks at Samoans, probably the closest the people of Easter Island had or have to ancestral relatives, one will notice much larger physiques. The men are much taller, tend to have much more natural muscle mass and endurance. This is why they are widely sought after by colleges and professional sports years before they graduate from high school. The women, though smaller, are still probably stronger than the average European men. Perhaps these explorers wanted to hide the fact that these people were immensely stronger than the Europeans.
There is no anthropological evidence of in-fighting, which goes against what Europeans had been reporting from their exploration in 1722. Europeans, many of the nationalities having had the chance to now finally go to the area, got to witness firsthand how strong these people were. This would make them suitable as slaves, and that brings us back into an era of documentation. Still no explanation of the basalt. There was little evidence to suggest any struggles or in-fighting. All the remains recovered from then until now seem to have all met their physical lives through nonviolent means. Moreover, it looks like the appearance of the Europeans did the same thing to these people as it did to every other culture that existed on the planet.
Along with their dynasties and hypocritical rules taxation without representation, they also brought with them many diseases, such as smallpox and tuberculosis. This killed the majority of Easter Island’s natives. Nobody today seems to be certain how the Dutch had come up with the erroneous number of 15,000. The population was much more likely similar to what it is today, with around 6,000 people. Again, still no reason for how the statues were built or moved.
Finally, an explorer went on to try to move the smallest statue of the island. He had a team, rope, and a rare sandy beach to work with. They were able to move the building a few inches, with tools they original Easter Islanders would not have had access too. Still no acceptable answer about the basalt statues other than to say it is possible that the quarries may be underwater. If that’s the case, this would make the make the Islanders a much older group of people than allowed before. Because the basalt was probably quarried above water, this would make those quarries inactive, and easier to sink.
Very little oral tradition or written record survived what is believed to have existed before. Or rather it was destroyed by the oncoming slave train. So what do we know about the people and structures about Easter Island?
We know that the ancestors are probably Polynesian, possibly even of Samoan ancestry. This is supported by the observers report that the people he was interacting with were larger, family oriented people. If the basalt statues were quarried above water, this probably means that those statues are thousands of years older than originally proposed. We know that these people had implements to finely craft faces into heavy rock, and had the ability to position them however they pleased. The formations all seemed to face specific directions, usually towards the sea. This is suggestive of religious rituals. Skeletal remains of ancient Eastern Islanders are scant, and possibly underneath the rocks, this would give us more conclusive DNA evidence. Current DNA evidence shows that there is a definitive Polynesian profile of an average 84%, with South American traces introduced at 16% which means that at some point the two races intermixed, but it is hard to say when, other than to say it was well before slavery or even Colonialism (Turban, 2015). What seems to be the most mysterious thing about Eastern Island is how mysterious it continues to be.
There are other mysteries throughout the world, some of which pre-date human record keeping. Right now, DNA forensic research, carbon dating, and the recording of patterns seems to be all we have so far, to look at other physical phenomena that exists. Throughout the word, there are primate statues or structures that all seem to point towards Greenland, for instance. Along with the structures, are geographical signs of a weather and climate born assault on the entire planet. We know very little more than that, and it’s worth investigating further, because, just like everything in Anthropology, it can show us more about culture I those times, and what their primary environmental threats were.
These three anthropological mysteries are just a part of what makes the subject so fascinating. Each case, no matter how big or small, has incredible mysteries behind it. One of the biggest challenges witnessed in conducting this research was seeing how hard it is for these scientists to get funding for their projects. The Easter Islands, for example, have few active digs or other types of research going on. Scientists seem to be okay with one of Anthropology’s most implausible hypotheses. The ones who are not satisfied have been waiting ten years to see any kind of funding. Other areas of research, other doctors with valid proposals, have resorted to fundme pages online. Yet the passion and drive will probably always continue.
Works Cited
Hoagstrum, Carl. “American Indian Tribes” Salem Press. Pp. 501-504. 2000. Web. 2 May 2016
Koch, Paul L. and Anthony D. Barnosky. “Late Quaternary Extinctions: State of the
Debate.” Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 37:215–50. 2006. Web. 2 May 2016
Kuehne, Rainer. “Location for Atlantis?” Antiquity Vol 78 No 300 June 2004. Web. 2 May
2016
Pakandam, Barzin. “Why Easter Island Collapsed: An Answer for an Enduring
Question.” Department of Economic History London School of Economics. 2009.
Web. 2 May 2016
Pruitt, Sarah. “Massive Bronze-Age City Discovered Underwater in Greece.”
History.com. 31 Aug. 2015. Web. 2 May 2016
Turban, Daniel. “DNA from ancient Easter Islanders.” University of Barcelona, Barcino,
Catalonia, Spain. Updated 18. Nov. 2015. Web. 2 May 2016
