Abstract
Jade has been an important part of Chinese culture since Ancient times, when it was used to make various weapons and tools. The reason for this is because it is believed to have positive powers. Some of the attributes attributed to jade are purity, gentlemanliness, the ability to send one’s soul on a positive journey and to prevent misfortune from befalling a person. This is why jade was used in burial rituals, sacrifices and other religious ceremonies. Nevertheless, despite the importance of jade to the Chinese culture for many centuries only the very wealthy were permitted to own jade because it was tremendously difficult to mine and process. However, this has changed in modern times as machinery has become more advanced. There are also more areas to mine jade from, which has helped to increase the amount of jade that is available. Now there is a surplus supply of jade that is available and affordable for everyone.
Introduction/ thesis
The Chinese “Yu” is translated into “Jade” in English (Encyclopedia of East Asian Art). In Chinese culture the meaning is not so simplistic. The correct meaning of “Jade” is a “hard ornate stone” this is because it actually refers to several different stones including bowenite, jadeite and nephrite (Encyclopedia of East Asian Art). This paper will look at the use of jade in Chinese culture and art.
What is Jade?
Jade is a stone that is used in many different types of Chinese art including sculpture, jewelry, carvings. The stone is excavated from riverbeds and mountains (cultural-china, 2007). When it is taken from the riverbed or mountain it needs to be cut and polished in order for the shine that is associated with the stone to be expressed ((cultural-china, 2007). It has also been used in burial rites, formal ceremonies, offerings to the gods and the ancestors of families and for establishing and recording treaties (Encyclopedia of East Asian Art). Many of these sacrifices used ritual utensils (cultural-china, 2007). It comes in many different shades including white, which is popular in Chinese culture and green, preferred by the West. Jade has been used in goldsmithing since the prehistoric art. The Chinese highly value jade as they associate it with beauty, longevity, immortality, and purity (cultural-china, 2007). The people who carve jade also appreciate the translucent coloring, shades and glistening of the stones.
The majority of jade sculptures and reliefs have been created out of jadeite or nephrite. Jadeite is comparable to quartz in hardness, nephrite is a bit softer (Encyclopedia of East Asian Art). Nephrite tends to be a velvety white or numerous hues of green (Asia, 2008). Jadeite has a wider range of colors (Asia, 2008). More recently nephrite deposits are being obtained from the “Alps, China, Guatemala, Russia and New Zealand” (Asia, 2008). The colors that have been found at these sites are blue, emerald, lavender, and pink (Asia, 2008). Currently jadeite is harder to obtain than nephrite (Asia, 2008). There are only twelve places that one can locate jadeite (Asia, 2008). Still both types are as solid as steel and cannot be cut using metal tools (Encyclopedia of East Asian Art). Instead to carve jade traditionally, the carvers would use carborundum sand to wear the jade away and then they would use a soft tool to carve it (Encyclopedia of East Asian Art). This technique changed once drills with diamond drill bits were created. Throughout history the use and wearing of jade was restricted only to leaders and ceremonies (Encyclopedia of East Asian Art). This was because it was so difficult to produce and also because of its rarity.
History of jade
The history of jade can be put into six time periods. This is because from 4000-2000 BC there were a number of different cultures that were developing in China (Ko, 2008). The development was based primarily in six areas. These areas were where jade designs were created. The reason for this is because jade was seen as a way to express the mythological and religious beliefs on the people (Ko, 2008). Archeologists have found a number of jade items such as a “cong” which is a round tube that fits into a square block and is representative of “yin” and “yang” (Encyclopedia of East Asian Art). They have also found a “bi”, this is a smooth, perforated disk that the people would come to see as a symbol of heaven (Encyclopedia of East Asian Art). Archeologists have also discovered a number of jade weapons that were used for ceremonial purposes, including zhang and qui blades, axes adze heads, knives, there are also many jade pieces of jewelry such as bracelets and pendants (Encyclopedia of East Asian Art). They have also found ceremonial masks.
The manufacturing of jade was not rapid as the process to create jade piece was quite time consuming (Ko, 2008). Nonetheless, the nobility placed a high value on jade and its members always made it a point to carry a jade piece on them (ko, 2008). Carrying jade was a reminder for men to behave like gentlemen there was a saying at the time, “The gentlemen’s morals are like jade (cultural-china, 2007). This was to remind them to abide by the golden rule and because jade was seen to exemplify the five virtues which were bravery, integrity, intelligence, kindness, and trustworthiness (Ko 2008).
Animal Motifs
In the Northeast, which consisted of the eastern area of inner Mongolia and the western area of Liaoning, the Hong Shan civilization emerged (Ko, 2008). The prevalent style of jade carvings was done in rounded forms, however there have been a few slab like pieces discovered from this period (Ko, 2008). Many of the jade artifacts that have been found from this region have been dragons, eagles, which was seen as a bird that acted as a messenger from heaven because it could fly to and fro, and pigs which were a symbol of fertility (Ko, 2008). Soon the interest would shift from that of animal motifs to disks during the Liang Zhu Dyanasty.
Jade Disk
During the Liang Zhu civilization which grew up in the Tai Hu region in the southeast Yangtze river sink around 3500-2100 BC (Ko, 2008). This is an area from which a lot of jade carvings were unearthed from numerous burial sites during the 70’s and 80’s (Ko, 2008). A large number of the jades found had been used in ceremonies or rituals. There were also figures of animals and man that were used for pendants and other decorative functions (Ko, 2008). One of the most prolific pieces of the Liang Zhu culture that has been recovered in that of a jade disk. The disk is silky, smooth, without a high gloss. The disk also has no ornamental design. Jade disks were highly popular in the Liang Zhu culture but the interest in them had died out by 1500 BC during the Zhang and Zhou Dynasties. The interest in jade disks would reemerge in the fifth century BC, when the jade rings and disks would be used to carry important documents. However, before that jade weapons became highly prized during the Zhang Dynasty.
Jade Weapons of the Zhang Dynasty
The rulers during this period liked to demonstrate their status by using jade weapons, such as an axe and also qui tablets (Ko, 2008). As the power dynamics shifted to individuals with military power rather than the divine power that was important to the rule of areas in the Neolithic period. In order to make it easier for the people to recognize their power rulers began to create mythological narratives for themselves (Encyclopedia of East Asian Art). For example, the bird was used to represent the Zhang dynasty (1600-1050 BC) because it was claimed that a bird came down from heaven and gave birth to the first king of the Zhang (Ko, 2008). Therefore, this meant that he and his descendants had divine right to rule. The dynasty used a new variety of jade items. These included ritual jades, ceremonial weapons jewelry and ornaments for their clothing that consisted of animals and birds (Ko, 2008). This were created in the round, representing the earliest version of the style “minggi”. The wealthy Zhang had jade figures buried with them so that they could serve them in the afterlife (Ko, 2008). By the beginning of the Zhou Dynasty the importance of jade has went from its use as a weapon to it being mimetic of human life.
“Bi” “Cong” and Ritual Pieces
During the Zhou Dynasty which occurred between 1050-221 BC the importance of jade in creating art was maintained (Encyclopedia of East Asian Art). Jade was admired for its smooth, glossiness, these attributes represented to the Chinese kindness, intelligence and strength. The Ancient Chinese were also attracted to the flaws in the jade because they saw flaws as a part of being human and learning. Nonetheless, the hardness of jade represented to them the strength to endure the trials of life.
At the start of the dynasty the craftsman stayed true to the designs of the Zhang. By the middle period they began to utilize animal patterns and later abstract patterns (Encyclopedia of East Asian Art). This is because the use of more intricate tools and harder abrasives allowed carvers to create more detailed pieces (Encyclopedia of East Asian Art). Many of which consisted of really thin pieces of jade. Eventually the production of “bi”, “cong” and ritual pieces gained in importance and popularity. “Bi” was used in worshipping heaven during this period. It also signified the elite, so it is found on the graves on many Zhou Emperors. The “cong” which meant amplitude was another type of jade that was used for rituals. This was due to “cong” denoting someone that had the status of an officiator within their religion
Besides the continual production of bi, cong, and ritual pieces. Jade carvers made a number of scepters that were used to showcase the different ranks of nobility. They were also used as ceremonial batons. It has been discovered that during the Zhou Dynasty people would use jade plugs to block the seven orifices of someone who had died (Encyclopedia of East Asian Art). They also buried the dead with cicadas in their mouths (“Chinese jade, A brief introduction to Chinese culture,” 2005). This was because cicadas only come every seventeen years after being underground and so the Ancient Chinese associated this with rebirth (“Chinese jade, A brief introduction to Chinese culture,” 2005). The use of jade in death rituals would continue into the Han Dynasty with the use of “jade suits”.
Jade Suits
The Han Dynasty followed the Qin Dynasty which occurred between 221-206 BC. At this time jade art was extremely embellished (Encyclopedia of East Asian Art). Some of the popular design motifs includes animals and intricate designs. Items that were worn by the aristocracy such as belt buckles, and clasps were created with extreme details (Encyclopedia of East Asian Art). The most important and ornate of the artwork that was created during the Han Dynasty was the “jade suits” these were suits that were created for dead nobles (Encyclopedia of East Asian Art). The purpose of them was to ward off malevolent spirits in the hereafter. One example of this is the ones that are made for “Prince Liu Shen and his wife Princess Dou Wan” (Encyclopedia of East Asian Art). Their jade suits were made of over 2,000 sewn together jade plaques and nearly a kilo of gold thread. (Encyclopedia of East Asian Art). In the tomb of Zhao Mo there has also been found another jade suit of 4,000 plaques.
There are a number of jade phoenix and dragon motifs which are believed to have echoed the importance of Taoism during the period (Ko, 2008). This would have contributed and reinforced the idea of Yin and Yang which was important as the Han Dynasty (the phoenix and dragon represented them) tried to find a balance between their material and spiritual desires (KO, 2008). After the Han took power, which lasted over four hundred years. The people enjoyed growth and stability because the people were loyal to the dynasty. During this time jades were used to showcase the authority of the upper class. This is why the most important and sacred items of the Emperor was made out of jade (Ko, 2008).
There was not much that happened with the use of jade between the Han Dynasty and the Qing Dynasty (Encyclopedia of East Asian Art). Craftsman and carvers continued to use it to showcase their talents and the imperial family was the only ones permitted to own jade (Encyclopedia of East Asian Art). Nonetheless, it reached the pinnacle of its success during the Ming Dynasty.
Types of jade carvings
When jade first started being used in the Neolithic period it was only used to make tools such as arrowheads, axes, chisels and similar tools. Due to the fact that they thought that the sky was round and the earth square many of the objects created during this time consisted of a round cylinder inside of a square. They also made jade phoenix and dragons in order to appease the gods when they gave sacrifices (Encyclopedia of East Asian Art). This was because dragons and phoenix were considered to be divine creatures in Ancient China. They were also used on tombs, to banish evil, and to protect a person from disaster one their way to the afterlife (Encyclopedia of East Asian Art). The living wore jade items in order to protect and purify their souls (Encyclopedia of East Asian Art.
Later in Chinese history jade became popular with the ruling and scholarly class. They liked to own jade objects of a personal nature such as brush holders, and opium pipe mouthpieces. The latter was because they believed that jade would give the smoker longevity (Encyclopedia of East Asian Art)
Jade in the Modern Day
Jade is still popular in modern times and it is still something that is given as gifts. In Chinese culture jade is seen as the ideal gift to give a married couple as it is believed to protect the home and marriage from misfortune (“Chinese jade, A brief introduction to Chinese culture,” 2005). It is now possible to easily create jade pieces that are far more intricate then those of the past. The reason for this is because with modern tools it has become easier to excavate and manufacture jade. This has made it possible for everyone to be able to own jade (“Chinese jade, A brief introduction to Chinese culture,” 2005).
In conclusion jade has always played an important role in Chinese art and culture. Jade has been used in religious rituals and to protect Emperors and the dead on their way to the afterlife. This is because of the positive qualities that are assigned to it because of the hardness and difficulty in manufacturing the stone.
References
ASIA, 2012 E. (2008). Jade & Jadeite culture and history - jade color, types & grading standards. Retrieved June 20, 2016, from http://www.eglasia.com.hk/jade_culture.html
Chinese jade, A brief introduction to Chinese culture. (2005). Retrieved June 20, 2016, from ChinatownConnection, http://www.chinatownconnection.com/chinese_jade.htm
cultural-china. (2007). A brief introduction of Chinese jade-culture - china culture. Retrieved June 20, 2016, from http://arts.cultural-china.com/en/32Arts4663.html
Encyclopedia Of East Asian Art. Jade Carving, China: Characteristics, Types, History. Retrieved June 20, 2016, From Http://Www.Visual-arts-cork.com/east-asian-art/jade-carving.htm
Ko, P. (2008, January ). The History of Ancient Chinese Culture. Retrieved June 20, 2016, from The Hong Kong Medical Diary, http://www.fmshk.org/database/articles/04ls.pdf
