McKissack P C & Mckissac F (1995) “ The Royal Kingdoms of Ghana, Mali and Songhay: Life in Medieval Africa” and The Gale Group Inc (2003) “Middle Passage”. Dictionary of American History
In the first article by the McKissacks, the authors illuminate important aspects of the African American heritage by introducing three main kingdoms of medieval Africa. Songhay, Mali and Ghana were the main countries. Based on contemporaneous accounts, folklore and modern scholarly research, the authors’ discussions covers the customs, people, political history and origins of these civilizations. The authors provide insightful information about the world history and also Africans particularly their participation in slave trade. In addition, the authors communicate about the role played by religion in shaping, establishing as well as destroying bygone kingdoms. In the second article by the Gale Group Inc, the authors claim that slave trade was part of the economy of the Atlantic nations. It was established mainly by sea captains from New England and England, a system of trading routes that was developed among Africa, North America and Europe commonly known as the triangular trade. The economics of human trafficking operated this way. England produced manufactured goods such as textiles, fire arms and gun powder that were not available in Africa and North America. This cargo traded these goods for these slaves and other riches such as silver and gold. Local leaders sent slaves and other domestic goods to the North American coast and the West Indies. The shippers traded their cargo for fish, tobacco, rum, foodstuffs, floor and Lumber in New England before returning to England. The inhabitants of the west coast recognized the practice of slavery. Local kings sold surplus slaves to Europe and America in addition to prisoners of war, debtors and criminals. They acted mainly as domestic servants. By 1944, Europe started to buy African slaves from the West coast demand for slaves was greater than any other practice could provide. Therefore, local tribes resorted to carrying out raids to capture slaves with the use of fire arms such as guns supplied by the slavers. In both articles, the authors discuss about the middle passage which was the shipping of slaves across the Atlantic Ocean. The slaves were mainly from the west coast where they were forcefully loaded into ships and taken into different countries of America and Europe. Most of them acted as domestic slaves. In my opinion, the Middle passage gave rise to the African American culture as most of the slaves stayed back even after the abolition of slave trade.
The Haitian Revolution for independence
Corbett B (1995) “The Haitian Revolution of 1791-1803” and Bongie C (2008) “Friends and Enemies: The Scribal Politics of Post Colonial Literature”. Liverpool UK: Liverpool University Press
Corbett in the first article talks of the slaves that rose up in armed resistance to fight for their independence. The French colony of saint Domingue was the richest colonies in the history of the world. It was driven by fertile soils, ideal climate and slave labor. Saint Domingue produced different crops such as indigo, tobacco, coffee, sugar, sisal, cotton as well as other numerous types of fruits and vegetables. At the start of the revolution, there were four distinct sets of groups with different interests. These are the white, maroons, free people of color and the black slaves. There were about 30,000 free persons of color. Half of these individuals were the mulattoes that are children of slave women and white Frenchmen. The black slaves accounted for about 500,000. The slave system of saint-Domingue was really harsh and cruel. There were different revolutions going on simultaneously. The revolutions were greatly influenced by the French revolution which began in Paris in 1789. There were constant rebellions from the slaves as they were oppressed by their masters and wanted equal rights and freedom granted to them. For several years before the start of the Haitian revolution, the slaves deserted their plantations with increased frequency. In the second article by Bongie, explains that the Haitian revolution was a successful anti-colonial and anti-slavery insurrection that took place I Saint Dominique a former French colony. The revolution began in 1791 and ended in 1803. This impacted the institution of slavery throughout America. The liberated slaves fought to preserve their freedom and also aimed at destroying slavery at home. They decided to collaborate with the mulattoes in a bid to restore their freedom. Through the revolution they were able to form the sovereign state of Haiti. In both articles, the authors talk about the Haitian revolution in the French colony of Saint Domingue. The salve system in both cases was harsh and this lead to the revolutions. Different sets of groups fought for their liberation and the war began in 1791 and ended in 1803. The slaves collaborated with the mullatoes these are children born with the slave women and French women. This topic is important to the America’s culture and history as it marks the beginning of the war against slavery. Slavery undermined human rights and with the fight against it set the pace for the entire world to fight for their own independence.
The America Colonization Society
Frankie H (1983) “Economic Considerations in the American Colonization Society’s Early Effort to Emigrate Free Slaves to Liberia, 1816-36”. The journal of Negro History And PtahKaNehisi-El (2011) “American Colonization Society” Murakush Society.
The Article by Frankie talks of settling the freed slaves. In his article, he talks of Paul Cuffee who existed 1759-1817. He was a mixed race and a successful activist and Quaker ship owner from Wampanoag and Ashanti parents. He is remembered for advocating the settlement of freed American slaves in Africa. He gained support from free black leaders from America, and the British government to take emigrants to Sierra Leone a British colony. Cuffee’s was one of the earliest advocates of settling freed blacks. He gained support from black members and leaders of the US congress. The author further talks of how Cuffee financed trips from America in 1816 and 1817. He took 38 Americans back to Sierra Leone Free town in 1816, and other trips were prohibited by his death in 1817. He reached a large audience with practical examples and pro-colonization arguments. With this, he laid foundation for the American Colonization Society. In the second article by PtahKaNehisi, the author talks of The American Colonization Society as the primary vehicle that supported the return of free African Americans. This contributed to the founding of the colony of Liberia. This took place in 1821 to 1822 as a place for freedman. The founders of this organization were Richard Bland, John Randolph and Henry Clay. Paul Cuffee was a wealthy New England activist and ship owner who advocated for the settling of freed blacks in Africa. The author further talks of Cuffee gaining support from members and leaders of the US congress. In 1815 and 1816, he was responsible for financing and captaining successful voyages to Sierra Leone a Bristish colony. He helped African-Americans immigrants get established. Unfortunately, he passed on in 1817, having set the pace for the American Colonization Society to initiate and carry out further settlements. The association consisted mainly of Quackers who wanted the abolition of slave trade. The coalition was also made up of slaveholders who wanted to eliminate the perceived threat of freed blacks dwelling in their society. Slave holders were against the idea of abolition of slave trade although they wanted to remove freed blacks in their society, and avoid rebellions from slaves. They all founded the organization with the belief that African freed slaves had better chances of developing their lives in Africa than in US. Thousands of freed slaves moved to Liberia and developed their country. In 1847, the nation was declared an independent state by the Legislature of Liberia. However, critics claim that the American Colonization Society was a racist society. Both articles recognize Paul Cuffee who was one of the earliest advocates for the return of the freed African America slaves in the United States. Both articles claim he laid foundation of the America Colonization Society. This coalition initiated the settlement of freed slaved into Liberia. The nation was declared an independent state. I believe this was the first step to the abolition of slavery and it marked a turning point of how Americans and the entire world viewed blacks.
The Underground Rail Road
Lincoln A & Lincoln M (1996). “The Underground Railroad”. WGBH America Experince and Tom C (2011) “Places of the Underground RailRoad: A Geographical Guide. Santa Barbara.
In the first articles by the Lincolns, slaves who run away risked the danger of hardships, the hardships of fugitive life, and even faced death threats. African American slaves especially in the south, run away due to various reasons. These reasons included endless hours of forced and hard labor, psychological abuse, brutal physical punishment and work with little or no compensation. These reasons drove many slaves to escape putting their lives in danger in a bid to keep away from plantation life. Master’s death meant that slaves would be sold to a different person as part of the estate. This act led to breaking up of family relationships causing so much agony. Most of the slaves escaped alone seeking aid from relatives of friends and other well wishers such as abolitionist whites and other African American well wishers. Only a small percentage of slaves travelled by the use of organized network of routes commonly known as stations or conductors. This was later identified as the Underground Railroad. Both African American men and women equally left the plantations in search of freedom. In the second article, Tom describes the successes of the organized Underground Railroad which depended on the collaboration of sympathizers in hundreds of different areas across the country. Each of these areas operated independently. These areas were all distinctive in terms of society as well as geographically. After 1850, an approximate of thirty fugitives on a daily basis used steam boats to cross over to Fort Malden. One of the ships was not as Sultana and made frequent trips among great lake ports. One of the notable captains during this time was known as Appleby C.W who facilitated the movement of several slaves from different lake ports to Malden. In both articles, the authors talk about the escape of slaves from their masters in search of freedom. Most of them escaped from the south and headed to the north. This movement was famously known as the Underground Rail Road. This has shaped the American History as it marked the beginning of the start of African Americans seeking liberation and recognition of their human rights.
