Introduction
It was a unique time in history; slavery had been abolished, Jim Crow las were in effect but the civil rights movement had not yet begun. Voices like Langston Hughes spoke out against the racial oppression. Hughes himself wrote many short stories, poems and plays in his time. One of the themes that repeats itself in the works of Hughes is the word “mulatto”. “Mulatto”, a word used to describe a person of mixed black and white heritage, elicits a negative feeling or response from most people given the prejudiced nature of the word. Due to the negative nature of the word, Langston Hughes uses “mulatto” to illustrate the oppression that Africans Americans were facing in his time. Hughes short story Father and Son and his play Mulatto: A Play of the Deep South both tell the same story in different mediums. Hughes uses both the story and play to show racial oppression in the south as well as trying to better tell his story in the form of Father and Son.
History
United States- 1930’s
The early 1930’s found American’s in the depths of the Great Depression. Herbert Hoover was president until 1932 when Franklin Delano Roosevelt was voted into office ("The 1930's", n.p.). While Hoover had done little to alleviate the burden the people faced, Roosevelt came in with new ideas and began making changes to stimulate the economy. This included his “New Deal” which helped employ thousands of people. In essence the New Deal overhauled the bank system and created the Works Progress Administration (WPA) and Civil Conservation Corps (CCC) to put men to work ("Surviving The Dust Bowl" n.p.). Nonetheless, change was slow.
Although the Ku Klux Klan had seen a drop in membership, racism still abounded, especially in the southern states ("Race In The 1930's", n.p.). The influx of African Americans to northern states as a result of southern racism and Word War 1 also created racial tensions within northern states ("Race In The 1930's", n.p.). Many of Roosevelt’s New Deal programs paved the way for African American’s to better their lives. For instance, “federal programs as The Federal Music Project, Federal Theatre Project, and Federal Writers project enabled black artists to find work during the depression, often times creating art or stories which portrayed the historic and present situation of blacks in the South” ("Race In The 1930's", n.p.). This helped to educate northern whites as to the plight of African Americans in the South. Despite some benefits to the New Deal for African American’s, there was still discrimination shown as whites were often given jobs before African Americans at the WPA, although they may have applied earlier or had greater need.
Langston Hughes
Hughes was born in Joplin, Missouri in 1902, but spent most of his formative years in Lawrence, Kansas (Rampersad n.p.). Hughes father, James Hughes, and mother, Carrie Langston, separated when he was just born ("Langston Hughes" n.p.). James Hughes deserted the family and went to Mexico ("Langston Hughes" n.p.). Carrie Langston moved around in order to find work ("Langston Hughes", n.p.). As a result, Hughes grew up under the influence of his Grandmother, Mary Langston, and Grandfather, who had been an abolitionist; his parents were neglectful of him (Rampersad n.p.). This parental neglect fostered a sense of loneliness and drove Hughes to books for reprieve. Hughes attended Columbia University, leaving the university in 1922 (Rampersad, n.p.). While taking menial work, Hughes traveled to various parts of Africa and Paris; he returned to the United States in 1924 (Rampersad, n.p.). He was already established as a poet at this time. Hughes graduated from Lincoln University in 1929; around this same time one of Hughes most important relationships crashed leading to a sense of disillusionment (Rampersad, n.p.). Charlotte Mason, Hughes Godmother, had been financing him and his writing for two years until the fell out with each other. It is this deep unhappiness and disillusionment, mixed with his feelings of abandonment from his own parents, that fostered the attitudes and ideas shown in both Father and Son and Mulatto: A Play of the Deep South.
Use of the word Mulatto
The term mulatto comes from Spanish roots, meaning hybrid ("Mixed Race America" n.p.). The term was originally used to describe the offspring of a “pure white” person and a “pure African Negro” person, usually with the white person being male ("Mixed Race America" n.p.). Eventually, it came to describe those who were a result of “mixed-Negro” and white heritage as well ("Mixed Race America" n.p.). Both Frederick Douglass and Booker T. Washington would be considered mulatto since their mothers were slaves and their fathers were white. There was also a period of time that the term “colored” referred to light skinned mulatto’s, although the term eventually became a term used to describe all African Americans ("Mixed Race America" n.p.).
Racial Oppression in Hughes Works
In the article A Textual Comparison of Langston Hughes' Mulatto, "Father and Son," and "The Barrier", Sybil Ray Ricks (101-103) asserts that Hughes use of the mulatto is a reflection of Hughes troubles relationship with his own parents. While this is a possibility, it is unlikely. Instead, Hughes uses the mulatto characters in his writings to show the complex differences between the white man and black man. By combining both into one character, the reality of racial oppressions can truly come to light. As Davis points out in his article The Tragic Mulatto Figure in Six Works of Langston Hughes (196), the traditional tragic mulatto figure in literature “is a victim of divided inheritance; from his white blood comes his intellectual strivings, his unwillingness to be a slave; from his Negro blood come his baser emotional urges, his indolence, his savagery.” Hughes takes this tragic figure to another level in his writings and also illustrates how the black women who bore these children were victims as well. This is a stark difference between the ideas put forth by Ricks since Hughes in essence defends the black mothers and condemns the white fathers, which is not a reflection of his parental issues. Another way in which Hughes departs from the typical tragic mulatto figure, and even the normal depiction of black people in literature at the time, is by making his black characters well-spoken and courageous (Emanuel and Claborn n.p.). Most literature at the time depicts all blacks as using a broken southern English, much like that in Their Eyes Were Watching God which was published in 1937 (Hurston n.p.). Hughes avoids the broken dialect and instead has his characters speak much more like their white counterparts.
In both Father and Son and Mulatto, Robert, the mulatto child of Colonel Norwood, refuses to “stay in his place”. Not only is Robert smart, he also has his father’s looks and spirit. The Colonel has no other heir, but still does not want to acknowledge Robert as his son or equal. This is despite his acknowledgment of Robert’s mental acuity and other positive qualities; this is even despite the fact that Robert reminds him of himself. This dichotomy ends in a violent fight, and the death of both Robert and the Colonel at Robert’s hand.
In the beginning of both Father and Son and Mulatto Hughes quickly shows the disdain the Colonel has for Robert, although the story and the play begin slightly differently. In the story, the Colonel is waiting for Robert to come home from the school he had been away at for the past six years. The text states that “This boy, however, was not his real son”; furthermore, it says that “Cora will greet her son” versus their son (Hughes, 1). While the character of the Colonel does not fully admit to the boy being his own, he does claim the positive aspect of Robert being smart saying, “Quick as hell. Cora's been telling me he's leading his class at the Institute, and a football captainhe must be a smart darkie. Got my blood in him” (Hughes 1). While he does acknowledge some positive aspects to Robert, and even that his blood is in Robert, he spends most of the story denying he is Robert’s father.
In the play Robert is already home and Cora and the Colonel are having a conversation concerning him taking the truck to town without the Colonel’s orders. The Colonel tells Cora, “if you want that hard-headed son of yours to get along around here, he’d better listen to me. He’s no more than any other black buck on this plantation-due to work like the rest of them” (Hughes et al. 20). Once again, the Colonel makes it clear that Robert is not special; his relation to his father has no bearing on his status.
As much as it is clear that the Colonel thinks that Robert is just another black buck, that is not how Robert himself views himself. This is where Hughes depiction of the Mulatto becomes interesting; Robert is comfortable with his black side. He obviously excelled in Atlanta at his all black school, and in no way does he ever try to pass as white or deny his black heritage. Instead, Robert simply wants his father to recognize him despite his status as a mulatto. Robert understands that his black and white side are inseparable, while his father only sees the black side. In the story, the first interaction Robert has with his father upon returning from school once again reminds him that his father will not recognize him. “‘Good evening, Colonel Tom,’ the boy replied quickly, politely, almost eagerly. And then, like a puppet pulled by some perverse string, the boy offered his hand” (Hughes 2). His hand was never taken, and instead Robert was left embarrassed. In the play, Robert seeks to point out to his father that “But I am not a nigger, Mr. Norwood. I’m your son” (Hughes et al. 39). Norwood tells Robert, “Your Cora’s boy”, denying his involvement in Robert’s creation (Hughes et al. 39).
Another way in which Hughes shows the severe prejudices of the white man through the character of Robert is when Robert goes to the Post Office (Trotman 133). The clerk short changes Robert, and Robert is in the right to protest. The clerk telephones the Colonel, which leads to the final show down between father and son. It is interesting that the Colonel would choose this incident to enrage him so. In Father and Son this final show down leads to Robert choking the Colonel to death, Robert shooting himself to avoid the lynch mob, and Roberts older brother Willie being lynched. This differs from the play, since in the play it never shows whether Willie is lynched or not, only that his mother tells him to hide himself and his family before the lynch mob arrives. It also needs to be pointed out that it is not until the lynch mob seeks Robert out that Robert finally understands the consequences of being black in Georgia at this time; he had spent too much time seeking to be his father’s child to consider the ramifications of his own color (Bloom 37). Another interesting facet of this scene is that the Colonel has the opportunity to shoot Robert, and instead allows Robert to murder him. It is also fitting that it is his father’s pistol which is the tool of Roberts demise (Soto 263). Since Roberts entire life was spent seeking his father’s acceptance, and never getting it, it seems right that he dies using a tool of his fathers. Another point to his death is that he kills himself on his mother’s bed, essentially dying into the race that accepted him (Gubar 213). These important aspects of the story carry through the short story and the play.
Further evidence of Hughes use of the mulatto as a sign of racial oppression is through the ways which Hughes presents Cora, Robert’s mother. In an extended monologue after Robert murders the Colonel, Cora remembers her first sexual encounter with the Colonel, and the life they made together. She remembers seeking his attention because, as a slave, her options were better if she could get and keep the Colonel’s attentions ("Cora Unashamed" n.p.). Unfortunately, although slavery ended, Cora never adjusted to that fact. It is at this point Cora reevaluates her entire life, and damned the Colonel for his actions (McLaren 66). She finally rejects the “dominance of plantation order” (McLaren 66). Still, never does Robert condemn his mother as he does his father. He understands that her options as a black woman were less than other women, and she had to make a life where she could. In fact, during her monologue she admits that her own mother encouraged her to nurture the relationship between herself and the colonel because “fine white mens like de young Colonel always took good care o’ their colored women” (Hughes et al. 48). This indicates that the mother felt Cora could have a better life as the mistress of the colonel, versus marrying a black man. In fact, black mistresses were often dressed and treated almost as well as the wives of the men ("Cora Unashamed" n.p). This further shows the racial issue which Hughes sought to highlight. It is interesting to note that this same monologue is not in Father and Son, although the story gets told nonetheless.
Another way people try to read into Hughes depiction of the mulatto is that it is showing interracial prejudices; in other words, the prejudices between darker and lighter skinned blacks (Harry J. Elam Jr. and Michele Elam 85-103). As the textual evidence shared shows, this is either reading too far into the story and play, or a misreading of Hughes intent. If Robert was meant to represent the racial issues between blacks themselves, he likely would not have so readily been a leader and liked so well at an all-black school. Robert does not outright deny his own heritage as a black man, he seeks instead to have recognition from both his white and black side. He wants to have a complete sense of his self, versus just one half of himself. When looked at in this way, both the story and the play are written to show the base horrible prejudices of the white man; they were so extreme that beating and enslaving their own children because they were partially black was acceptable. It is the hypocrisy and prejudice of the white man which Hughes seeks to condemn, not the prejudices within the black community.
Why Tell the Same Story Twice?
While Mulatto: A Play of the Deep South came out a year after the collection of short stories that featured Father and Son, the play was written first. This is significant because it means Hughes did not write Father and Son in reaction to the plays reception, nor was the play written as an afterthought to the story. Furthermore, neither of these mediums was Hughes normal mode of writing. After all, Hughes viewed himself first and foremost as a poet (Hughes, Harper and Rampersad xiii). This would indicate that there is purpose in the mediums which Hughes chose to tell these stories in. It is highly likely that Hughes felt this story was important enough that he wanted to reach a wider audience with it. Mulatto appeared on Broadway; this meant that many could not afford to see the play. Many could afford to read his books though, so a written story version of the play would reach those with a lower income who would not see a stage play. It is also possible he used the book to fill in details that cannot be depicted upon a stage. It seems that he has never said why he wrote both, so supposition is all one as when musing about his purpose in doing so. Since the story lines are so closely the same, with the major differences being due to the type of media versus any drastic differences within the story itself, it is likely he was just seeking a wider audience for his story. It is a powerful condemnation about the treatment of blacks by white men, and is likely one he wanted talked about in all financial circles.
Conclusion
Hughes raw and honest portrayal of the treatment of African Americans in the time after slavery ended is both refreshing and unnerving. His use of the mulatto to stretch between colors and show hypocrisy and prejudices at their nasty core is both shocking and eye opening at the same time. To show the depth of prejudice by illustrating the treatment of a black son by his white father was moment of literary genius. In both Father and Son and Mulatto the readers or audience get to see the hatred for blacks that was so prevalent. While they may have been good enough for sexual use, beyond that they were nothing more than free or cheap labor. Colonel’s stubborn denial of his eldest son Robert, despite having no legitimate heir, is an indictment of how horrible prejudice can truly be. His willingness to beat his own son as if he were nothing more to him than a regular nameless slave is appalling. Father and Son and Mulatto are almost exactly the same, with differences being for the most part caused by the difference in mediums used. Hughes must have viewed this story as important to reach a large audience, therefore putting it into story form so that people who could not attend the play could still read it. His artful use of the mulatto to highlight racial issues in both short story and play form is excellent; there is little doubt he achieved the purpose which he sought to achieve through both mediums.
Works Cited
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Gubar, Susan. Racechanges : White Skin, Black Face In American Culture : Race And American Culture. 2000. Print.
Harry J. Elam Jr., and Michele Elam. "Blood Debt: Reparations In Langston Hughes’ Mulatto". Theatre Journal 61.1 (2009): 85-103. Web.
Hughes, Langston et al. The Collected Works Of Langston Hughes. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2001. Print.
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Ricks, Sybil Ray. "A Textual Comparison Of Langston Hughes' Mulatto, "Father And Son," And "The Barrier"". Black American Literature Forum 15.3 (1981): 101- 103. Web. 19 May 2016.
Soto, Isabel. "Liminality And Transgression In Langston Hugues' "Mulatto"". Cuadernos de Investigación Filológica 26.0 (2000): 263. Web.
"Surviving The Dust Bowl". American Experience. N.p., 2016. Web. 19 May 2016.
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Trotman, C. James. Langston Hughes. New York: Garland Pub., 1995. Print.
