Heroes in myth and literature are, in the Campbellian sense of the word, typically selfless, virtuous figures who sacrifice and go through many struggles in the name of the protection of others. In Greek mythology, however, this selflessness is somewhat subverted: one would be hard pressed to find many Greek heroes who did not have some sort of selfishness in their character. In the minds of the Greeks, true heroism came in achieving great, impressive deeds that elevated one’s own sense of reputation and ego; while there can be selfless, magnanimous motives behind these actions, the ultimate goal of a Greek hero is to prove how mighty they are. Whether this is through brute strength, cunning, or other skills attributable to heroes, these figures are most often celebrated for what they can actually get away with.
One of the most intriguing models for Greek heroism is Odysseus, the central figure in Homer’s The Odyssey. Odysseus’ long, arduous journey home in The Odyssey, while eventually successful and happy, is beset with problems created by many different gods, which he must heroically overcome. While Athena and Zeus in particular are supportive of his journey home, Poseidon carries a particular grudge against Odysseus for making his son, the Cyclops, blind; as a result, he destroys Odysseus’ ship using a particularly nasty storm. Like many acts of vengeance against a man by a god, Odysseus did not mean to slight Poseidon; he was merely acting in self-defense, as the Cyclops meant to devour him and his crew. Instead of understanding why Odysseus did what he did, Poseidon seeks to take his vengeance on someone for doing what they had to do (Homer, The Odyssey, Book 9).
Odysseus is a skilled warrior and hero, but one of his most interesting qualities is his ability to manipulate - to lie, cheat and deceive. For the majority of the book, this is how he manages to evade capture or death, and accomplish his goals. In the cave of Polyphemous, he tells the Cyclops that his name is "Nobody," figuratively blinding him as to Odysseus' true identity. Later, while escaping, Odysseus literally blinds Cyclops, making physical what he uses his wits to figuratively accomplish - when he is disguised through trickery, no one can 'see' Odysseys for who he truly is, and that is something that Athena respects greatly. The sea nymph Ino gives him a veil that he uses to infiltrate the Phaeacians on the island of Scherie, this disguise becoming a bit more literal.
Often, Greek heroes are aided by the gods, like when Odysseus is assisted by the goddess Athena, who appreciates his cunning and ability to trick people (just like she does). When Penelope is dealing with the many suitors that have come to take her hand in marriage, she urges Penelope to manipulate the suitors into an archery competition to win her hand. This allows Odysseus to win, as the contest is performed with his own bow. This is one of the ultimate examples of Athena's love for Odysseus' disguises; working together after having been through so much, Athena and Odysseus effectively collaborate with dual disguises to show each other their craft. Odysseus disguises himself as a wandering beggar, with the help of Athena, in order to infiltrate his house and find out what the situation is with the suitors. Taking his physical disguise (granted by the godlike powers of Athena), he plays the part well, using his own gift of lying to manufacture a story about his childhood in Crete, his role fighting with the Greeks in the Trojan War, and then the seven years that he spend in the Egyptian king's court. Finishing the story with a shipwreck in Thesprotia and eventual landing in Ithaca, Odysseus weaves a tale that is worthy of Athena's godlike disguise. He even pulls this disguise on his wife Penelope, testing her love by mentioning Odysseus and gauging her reaction. By working together so closely in this way to collaborate on a disguise, Athena and Odysseus share their mutual respect for trickery and their abilities. Once Odysseus reveals himself, Athena joins him and his son in the slaughtering of the other suitors by turning the tide of the battle; at the same time, she permits the mortals to enjoy the fruits of their battling. After the battle, Athena herself effectively renews their vows, rewarding him for his hard work and strife in his quest to return home: "Then for all time to come a solemn covenant between the two was made by Pallas Athena, daughter of Zeus, who bears the aegis, in the likeness of Mentor both in form and in voice" (Homer, Book 24, 547). To that end, it is clear that, at least on some level, Greek heroes are valued because of their ability to deceive and trick others, and are validated by the gods for their heroism.
Athena is constantly aiding Odysseus and helping him in his travels, for the sake of the kinship mentioned previously. Like Odysseus, Athena is a being of action, preferring to do instead of ruminate, and they possess substantial initiative. Odysseus is always obsessed with winning glory through significant accomplishments, and that inspires his constant desire to move, to act, and to do. After he is tempted to spend the rest of his life with Calypso, he eventually makes his way out because he cannot stand to be without adventure and movement. Often, he will delay his journey home to further his adventures, as when he ransacks the Cicones or raids the cave of Polyphemus. His inventiveness and resourcefulness attract him to Athena, who constantly works behind the scenes to help him accomplish his ends. However, one of the most important distinctions to make is that Athena does not simply spirit him home, as it is presumably in her power to do. Instead, she helps him just enough to make him earn the ability to get home, and his own glory and strength takes him the rest of the way. In this way, Athena shows respect to Odysseus by permitting him to demonstrate his wiles for her, of which she is constantly impressed. "Would that bright-eyed Athena should care to love you as once she cherished mighty Ulysses in the land of the Trojans, where we Achaeans suffered woes -- for I never saw the Gods showing such open affection as Pallas Athena stood by him for all to see" (Homer, Book 3, 218-222).
Other Greek heroes follow the mold of being prideful, charismatic warriors – however, they are often punished for their hubris instead of being celebrated. In The Iliad, Achilles is an extremely prideful character - he is superhumanly strong, a fierce warrior, and incredibly aware of how good he is at fighting. As a result, he has a tremendous amount of pride, which often lands him in a lot of trouble. Also, he has a very fragile ego, which makes him lash out in anger and make mistakes when his pride is threatened. For example, when Agamemnon insults him, he is hurt so much by this that he actively leaves his men and prays for their slaughter by the Trojans. Achilles' primary motivation is attention and glory; he wants to prove himself and display his accomplishments to the world.
Agamemnon is just as prideful as Achilles, though possibly does not show his anger at a bruised ego in quite as intense a way. Agamemnon is stubborn, leading to the savaging of the Greek Army through Achillles' and Agememnon's refusal to back down over who should have Briseis. Whereas pride makes Achilles angry, it makes Agamemnon arrogant and full of hubris. Whenever he fights, he plays it safe, but he always feels he deserves the biggest portion of what prizes are won. He is constantly reminding people that he is the king, and he wants to lead the army at every opportunity, despite Menelaus having the right to lead the army into battle to save his wife Helen. While Achilles is prideful to the extent that he is fiercely loyal to his followers, Agamemnon just looks out for himself. All he does is in service of his own sense of pride; he wants to remain alive and prosperous, and as such he tests the loyalty of his troops and gives damning speeches about the gods. These attributes make Agamemnon an arrogant, prideful creature who is only interested in himself.
Hector's pride is much less pronounced than Achilles and Agamemnon; since he is fighting on home soil, he is much concerned with personal image than he is the protection of his home. However, he still allows his pride to get the better of him at times, particularly when it comes to Achilles. When the Trojans are camped on the plain, and Poulydamas tells Hector that it is not a wise idea, Hector continues with it anyway. Despite knowing that Achilles is the superior warrior, and knowing that the gods do not favor him, his pride as a warrior and protector of Troy lead to his undoing and his defeat at the hands of Achilles. In this way, his pride makes him tragic, whereas with Achilles and Agamemnon they are just arrogant creatures who somewhat deserve their respective misfortunes. Between these three characters, The Iliad presents different heroes on various ends of the spectrum from moral to amoral, but with pride connecting them all together.
Works Cited
Campbell, J. The Hero with a Thousand Faces (2nd ed.). Princeton: Princeton University Press,
1949.
Homer. The Iliad.
Homer. The Odyssey.
Powell, B. B. Classical Myth (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall. 2008.
