The end of World War II ushered in a new era in international policy. After the Axis powers were defeated, the world became polarized between two competing camps: the democratic capitalists, and the authoritarian communists. The first twenty years after the war were especially critical, as various US presidents sought to implement policies to contain the threat of the spreading red nations, which no world leader had seen before. Important policies such as the Truman Doctrine, New Look, and Flexible Response were created to protect American interests, though they at times differed from each other. Presidents Truman, Eisenhower, and Kennedy were directly responsible for the route the Cold War took.
The term “Cold War” was first used in 1947 (history.com, 2009), and President Truman was the first Cold War President. Truman inherited a world fractured, and as the Soviet Union reneged on its promises about controlling the countries in Eastern Europe, tensions grew between the two superpowers. Stalin already did not like Truman, as Truman prevented the Soviets from spreading their influence into Iran and Turkey (“Harry S. Truman: Foreign Affairs—Miller center,” 2017). Truman heavily supported Western leaning free nations, which became paramount after Great Britain said it could no longer protect the Eastern Mediterranean (“Harry S. Truman: Foreign Affairs—Miller center,” 2017). Truman requested aid from Congress for Greece and Turkey, who were facing communist pressures from within, saying, “I believe it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures. (Foundation, 1996)" This became known as the Truman Doctrine. As Soviet forces supported communist overthrows throughout Eastern and Central Europe, the Marshall Plan furthered Truman’s goal. The Marshall Plan was an aid package for Europe and the rest of the world, delivering billions of dollars to countries to rebuild infrastructure and ward off communism.
The Soviets directly threatened Germany as well. As the West coalesced together, they began merging their separate zones of Western Germany into one country, leading the Soviets to blockade West Berlin from access by democratic powers. This threat led to the formation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) to counteract Soviet intervention. The Soviets responded with the Warsaw Pact, which further polarized the opposing sides. The Soviets gained nuclear technology in 1949, forever altering America’s foreign policy and ending the chance at a non-retaliatory strike against America. Truman also entered the Korean War in an effort to show America’s allies that we were staunchly committed to preserving democracy, although Truman’s term ended long before the war was finished.
After Truman, former WWII general Dwight Eisenhower was elected as President of the United States. President Eisenhower continued the Marshall Plan, and escalated the Korean War. Eisenhower instituted the New Look policy, which became synonymous with massive retaliation. The plan called for increased military spending, but with a focus on increasing America’s nuclear capacity, airpower, and overall firepower over traditional military forces (“Dwight D. Eisenhower: Foreign Affairs—Miller center,” 2017). This is significant because it marks the true beginning of the nuclear era, where technology could wipe out scores of soldiers, and warfare would no longer be conducted along a WWII style.
Eisenhower also changed the nature of the CIA, and used them to spy on world leaders. The CIA became famous for assassination attempts and overthrowing pro-communist regimes all over the world, notable in Guatemala and Iran. Thus, Eisenhower built up the US military to a strength that provided significant deterrence, while using the CIA like a scalpel. President Eisenhower also used covert U2 spy planes to spy on the U.S.S.R, as the planes were designed to be ultra-lightweight and to fly at very high altitudes. Unfortunately one was shot down before the Paris peace conference, eliminating the chances of peace being established. Thus, Eisenhower ended his presidency with significant changes in military policy, but without altering the route of the Cold War.
President John F. Kennedy was elected in 1961, and he brought more changes to the table. John F. Kennedy rejected Eisenhower’s approach to war. Eisenhower believed in the rationality of deterrence with power, but President Kennedy wanted a more “flexible” approach. His often quoted policy focused military spending on being able to fight several small scale wars at once, and having a combination of methods to deter wars, not just a reliance on nuclear power and heavy fire power. President Kennedy increased troop numbers overall, and sent more men to Europe to deter Soviet aggression. Kennedy also increased the size of the US Special Forces, the Green Berets (“President Kennedy: Berlin, Laos, and ‘flexible response,’” 2012). Kennedy has not been characterized as a brinkmanship president, but the Bay of Pigs fiasco clearly shows how close Kennedy was willing to go. At this time, communism was splitting into several different flavors, as the USSR, China, and Cuba each represented a different type. John F. Kennedy combated all three, with threatening Cuba, reaching agreements with the Soviet Union, and by sending military advisors to Vietnam to protect the southern democracy. Unfortunately his aggressive policies against Cuba and Asian communism were ineffective, damaging his legacy at a time when the Cold War was audaciously expanding.
Works Cited:
History.com (2009). Bernard Baruch coins the term “Cold War.” history.com. Retrieved from http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/bernard-baruch-coins-the-term-cold-war
Harry S. Truman: Foreign Affairs—Miller center. (2017). Retrieved June 5, 2016, from Miller Center, http://millercenter.org/president/biography/truman-foreign-affairs
Harry S. Truman: Foreign Affairs—Miller center. (2017). Retrieved June 5, 2016, from http://millercenter.org/president/biography/truman-foreign-affairs
Foundation, W. E. (1996). WGBH American experience . Truman. Retrieved June 5, 2016, from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/general-article/truman-foreign/
Dwight D. Eisenhower: Foreign Affairs—Miller center. (2017). Retrieved June 5, 2016, from http://millercenter.org/president/biography/eisenhower-foreign-affairs
President Kennedy: Berlin, Laos, and “flexible response.” (2012, May 14). Retrieved June 5, 2016, from Contemporary History, http://www.thehistoryreader.com/contemporary-history/president-kennedy-berlin-laos-flexible-response/
