During the time period of 1870 to 1900, industrialization in the United States brought great changes to the life of the average US citizen. Not only was where and how they worked changed by industrialization, but the structure and values of society changed as well. Additionally, the government’s role in industrialization was markedly different than it had been in the pre-industrial era.
As factories, mills and mines were built throughout the nation, people began to migrate to the nearby towns and cities to take advantage of the new economic opportunities presented. (Tindall and Shi, 672) During the time period, the population of cities grew from about six million to forty-four million. (Tindall and Shi, 674) The frontier west of the United States, which had long been considered a “safety valve” for overpopulation in the cities, actually saw a decrease in population as people flooded to the cities in search of economic prosperity. (Tindall and Shi, 676) What growth occurred in the west at the time is owed to the towns that grew in mining regions and railheads. (Tindall and Shi, 677) Young people who had been brought up on farms were attracted to the modern amenities that the cities had to offer, and were no longer satisfied pursuing the mundane and laborious life of a farmer. (Tindall and Shi, 680)
Unfortunately, life in the cities during the Industrial Era was very hard for most. For every successful story of a “captain of industry” there were hundreds of thousands of tales of woe from average city laborers who were forced to live in squalor and work in inhuman conditions. (Tindall and Shi, 687) The labor shortage which brought so many rural workers to the cities was short-lived. (Tindall and Shi, 687) Open immigration policies led to a second “great wave” of immigrants from Europe. Unlike the first wave, the second consisted largely of the uneducated poor of Italy, Ireland and Southern Europe. (Tindall and Shi, 688) Then influx of cheap labor from overseas made it easy for business owners to treat their labor forces with indifference as they could be easily replaced. As a result, the average urban laborer lived and worked in very poor conditions. (Tindall and Shi, 689)
In the large cities of the era, most laborers lived in tenements, such as the “dumbbell” tenement in New York. (Klein, 87) These tenements consisted of two living rooms connected by a two-foot air duct, giving the appearance of a dumbbell from above. Six to eight stories tall, these structures held twenty-four to thirty-two families each. (Klein, 88) Early tenements were poorly heated and had shared toilet facilities in a common yard or nearby alley. (Klein, 88) With no privacy, free space or space for children to play, the mortality rate of the urban poor was extremely high. (Klein, 90)
Working conditions were no better. (Zinn, 345) With few labor laws to protect the working class, the business owners were free to use any rules they chose to govern their work force. (Zinn, 348) There were no age limits for factory labor. (Zinn, 349) It was not uncommon for factories to employ children as young as six years to go between the moving parts of large machines to un-jam or repair them. (Zinn, 351) The working day was dependant on sunlight in many cases and could run twelve to fifteen hours a day for a six-day week. (Zinn, 360) With no overtime pay, it was not uncommon for families to have every member working. (Zinn, 365) There was no sick leave or disability; injury on the job typically cost the laborer his job. (Zinn, 370)
Despite these hardships, historians refer to this era as the “Gilded Age”. (Griffith,127) Additionally, a middle class began to grow. The desire to “Americanize” foreign immigrants led to the massive expansion of public education. (Griffith,127) The middle class, with discretionary income, were prime clients for the new forms of entertainment available. (Griffith,129) Circuses, like that of Barnum and Bailey, toured major cities. (Griffith,131) Even more popular during this time were the “wild west” shows, the most famous of which featured Buffalo Bill Cody. (Griffith,132) Vaudeville shows and outdoor activities were popular as well. Lawn tennis and bicycling were popular pastimes utilized to avoid the disease and pollution associated with urban living. (Griffith,134) Women of the middle class had little time for leisure. The domestic chores involved with keeping the house were their responsibility. (Griffith,135)
Despite these limitations, woman could and did participate politically on the local and national levels. (Griffith,137) Residential community houses, called settlement houses were formed largely by women to succor to the urban poor. (Griffith,140) Jane Addams’ Hull House in Chicago and Henry Street settlement in New York are two examples of these institutions. (Griffith,140) The settlement houses were staffed by educated middle class women who wanted to broaden the horizons of the urban poor. (Griffith,141) They formed clubs, schools and activities for urban children. They also sought to provide an alternative to the saloons for urban men. (Griffith,147)
As the number of working women increased, so did the women’s suffrage movement. (Griffith,149) Susan B. Anthony formed the American Woman’s Suffrage Association, which won victories for suffrage in local elections and eventually universal suffrage in areas like the Wyoming territory and other western states. (Griffith,151)
The working class had their own recreational venues. (Griffith,160) They frequented saloons and dance halls. These places acted as public halls for the citizens. (Griffith,162) They would find out about jobs, read mail and newspapers and gossip. (Griffith,164) The saloons were heated, had restrooms, offered free lunch and were open long hours making them popular hang-outs for the working class. (Griffith,167)
Politically, the federal government was largely dormant during this period. (Griffith,201) There were roughly an equal number of Democrats and Republicans in Congress. (Griffith,202) While these parties were ideologically entrenched, they lacked political will to embrace real issues. The voters were very involved in politics with a 70-80% voter participation rate. (Griffith,203) They felt, despite the inertia of the Federal Government, that the major issues were being dealt with, such as tariffs, the currency, and civil reform were the topics that the federal government dealt with. Individual labor rights and working conditions were not on their radar. (Griffith,205) The trickle-down effect of the party loyalty led state and local officials to emulate the loyalty to their own constituents.
Other governing was left to the state governments and the municipal city political “machines.” (Griffith,262) The cities were run by corrupt political “machines.” Despite buying votes and taking bribes, the “machines” also provided social services for city dwellers. (Griffith,263) They gave work, food and fuel to the poor, sponsored English classes for immigrants. The responsibility of taking care of ordinary citizens fell on the “machines’ rather than the federal government. (Griffith266) Although they were helpful in dealing with individuals with problems, the political machines did nothing to alleviate the overweening problems of poor working conditions, overcrowding and the lack of municipal resources. (Griffith, 267)
The era between 1870-1900 represented the best and worst of the “American Dream”. For the most part, immigrants arriving through ports such as Ellis Island were able to improve themselves from the conditions from which they came. On the other hand, the conditions of the urban labor force were far from ideal. Long hours, low pay and dangerous working conditions were standard for the urban worker. Ultimately, the “Gilded Age” was anything but for most of the urban population, but the title fit for the industrial giants of the era, and the torpor of the federal government of the time seemed to illustrate the “good times” implied by the title.
Works Cited
Griffith, Edith. Liberty's Dawn: A People's History of the Industrial Revolution Yale University Press. 2013
Klein, Maury. The Genesis of the Industrial Revolution Cambridge Essential Histories, 2007.
Tindall, G. and Shi, D. America: A Narrative History Volume 2 W.W. Norton & Company, 2004.
Zinn, Howard. A People’s History of the United States Harper International, 1995.
