Research Methods
What does it mean to say that qualitative research follows a non-linear path? In what ways is a nonlinear path valuable?
Research Methods
Qualitative research method analyses symbols, contexts and situations in social context from various perspectives. It keeps things naturally and follows their patterns without any transformations through a prolonged path. It proceeds in a circulatory motion, while moving forward and backward according to the surroundings and situations, which makes it follower of a non-linear research path (Neuman, 2006).
Paths of Linear methods:
A linear path works by transforming the symbolic data into numeric; it works after making research method easier and simpler as compare to non-linear method. Non-linear research method is cyclical; it derives information from subtle shades of meaning. The non-linear approach is valuable because it reflects different research processes and steps while undergoing the research method (Neuman, 2006).
Describe the differences among dependent, independent and intervening variables.
Variables and their types
Variables are the basic working parameters of a research method upon which these methods depend. They have variable quality and quantity. These variables create relationships between different events of the process. Manipulation of one variable affects the other. There are three types of variables in research methodology. (Research Variables, study.com)
Differences between dependent, independent and intervening variables
A researcher works upon a dependent variable by using different measuring techniques. They are dependent upon the independent variables. The main cause of events in any method is based upon independent variables. When a researcher varies independent variable, it changes the dependent variable accordingly. The independent variables are the cause, while dependent are the effects. The difference between them is the time of occurrence. While all of the occurrences happen, there are additional variables which affect a research process simultaneously, and are known as intervening variables. For example, in a workplace a male member of society is an independent variable, whose work post, such as manager, based upon his education and gender, fixes his annual income. Here, the income is the dependent variable, man is the independent variable and the gender and education are the intervening variables. (nova.wpunj.edu/)
Briefly distinguish among theory, hypothesis and assumption.
Difference between theory, hypothesis and assumption
A research starts when an assumption is made. An assumption is based upon the apparent outlook of any situation without any logical base and is believed to be true, regardless of others viewpoints. Researchers start the study based upon their assumption combined with the theoretical basis of the field. The observations and their results are then combined, organized and unified with the help of theoretical studies. The theory of a research gives a general statement about the relationship between general statements of study with the acting variables. It gives related information to help make specific predictions about the outcomes helpful for future research. While setting up a research field, there are different independent and dependent variables which help in carrying out the research. The assumption is transformed into a hypothesis with the help of the connections between those variables. Hypothesis is based upon theory (Chen).
The above definitions helped in formulating the concept and connection between all three terms. The basic difference between them is the sequence of their occurrence. First a researcher conducts a study based upon a random generalized assumption. The assumption is based upon some theoretical concept and background. Once the theory and assumption are established, researcher formulates hypothesis. The hypothesis is the scientific research objective upon which the research is conducted and proved. All of the terms are interconnected in a particular sequence of order (Chen).
How do qualitative and quantitative researchers use theory?
Use of theory in research methods:
Hughes (2002) states theory as the building block of any research. Qualitative and Quantitative both type of researches starts with the information given in the theory of the study. There are different theoretical approaches including theory as paradigm which is based on research design; theory as lens which is about the phenomenon understanding and theory as knowledge which is based upon personal studies.
Researchers require theoretical data, symbols and details in order to conduct a qualitative research. Their study and work is based upon descriptive perspective and narrations. This information is used to examine forms of theories and gain new insight by the study. It is also used to generate theory by testing hypothesis and previous theories. The next step after qualitative research is of quantitative study. Research in quantitative methods tests theories in order to explore areas and produce hypothesis. Quantitative researchers use statistics to perform quantification and derive results based upon the theoretical study from qualitative research. It has an indirect approach towards theory (Hughes, 2002).
Can research in planning be value-free? Offer brief justification of your answer.
Value-free research planning:
Research planning cannot be value-free. The state of value-free research planning depends upon types of subjects and research fields. It is because a research process is affected by different values; it is highly subjective. Alvin Gouldner also believes that value-free research planning is impossible because value is present in all theories. Researchers say that the sociological research is not value free because it is subject, instead of scientific. Values go through all stages of the research process as per the belief of the anti-positivists. (markedbyteachers.com)
In order to attain a value-free research, constructionism has disproved positivism in study. There are different biases which are present in positivist research. Values are an important part of positivist research and its planning; constructionists have also stated the impossibility to conduct value-free research planning (Hall, 2008).
What are Type I and Type II errors?
Errors and its types
Type I and II errors are false positives. When a null hypothesis is rejected although it is true on the basis of probability, is known as Type I error. Similarly, when a researcher fails to reject a null hypothesis which is false, is known as type II error. The probability for a researcher to perform a type I error is known as level of significance (Neuman, 2006).
What are the levels of measurements? Give two examples for each?
Levels of measurements
When researchers assign numbers to quantities or values is known as measurements. It is necessary to attach relevant numbers to the variables. There are different kinds of data in levels of measurement: discrete data which include indivisible categories and continuous data which involves infinite number of values falling between two fixed quantities (Scaling: Level of Measurement).
Types of levels of measurements:
The first level is the nominal level of measurement. There are different names to the data and has no logical ordering. It also includes N-category nominal scaling based upon gender and ethnicities. For example gender, race, Asian and Hispanic etc. are nominal measurements. The second is Ordinal level of measurement which is ranked according to its magnitude, grouping in ordinal data; and distances between variables which are known or unknown. Response states such as good, better, best; hard, medium and easy are examples of ordinal level. On third is the interval level of measurement. This level is based upon ordered categories with uniform intervals. The interval data zero is an arbitrary point. This level of measurement is also used to perform arithmetic operations. Ratios between Fahrenheit measurements and measurement of anxiety in a student measured between 10 and 11 are examples of interval level. Fourth is ratio level of measurement, it is a type of interval data in which the origin represents the absence of measured characteristic. Amount of money in pocket: 25, 55 cents and measurement of Kelvin scales are examples of ratio level of measurement (Scaling: Level of Measurement).
What is the difference between reliability and validity? How do they complement each other?
Reliability and Validity:
Another pair of criteria required for the measurement purpose is reliability and credibility. The degree of a measurement producing consistent results upon repeated application is known as reliability. It is also when a random unsystematic error is absent from the measurement and proceeds in undergoing a method. Validity is the measurement of how a purported to measure is done (Wren, Phelan, 2005).
The reliability of a test is important but it is not sufficient. Both of the tools are independent of each other. Any measurement can fail to be reliable but not valid. A measurement is supposed to be valid which is independent of its reliability. Reliability comes with repetition of measurement over and over again. That test is also supposed to be valid. For example, if a person’s weight is less by 5 lbs, it measures the weight with an excess of 5lbs. It is considered as reliable weight due to consistency, but it is not valid because it is 5lbs more than the person’s original weight. A perfect situation is when the measurement is both reliable and valid. If we see reliability and validity from a broader perspective, we will notice them both to be from same continuum. Reliability is dependent upon same methods and concepts; validity on the other hand has different concepts and methods (Wren, Phelan, 2005).
References
Neuman, 5. E. (2006). Social research methods Studyguide for social research methods: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. S.l.: Academic Internet.
Variables: Independent, Dependent, Intervening. (n.d.). Retrieved February 29, 2016, from http://nova.wpunj.edu/gaydoshl/independent_dependent.pdf
Research Variables: Dependent, Independent, Control, Extraneous & Moderator. (n.d.). Retrieved February 29, 2016, from http://study.com/academy/lesson/research-variables dependent-independent-control-extraneous-moderator.html
Chen, P. D. (n.d.). Theory and Hypothesis. Retrieved February 29, 2016, from http://geekyartistlibrarian.pbworks.com/f/Lecture_09212010.pdf
Scaling: Levels of measurement. (n.d.). Retrieved February 29, 2016, from http://psc.dss.ucdavis.edu/sommerb/sommerdemo/scaling/levels.htm
Hall, R. (2008). Applied social research: Planning, designing and conducting real-world research. South Yarra, Vic.: Palgrave Macmillan.
