Summarize the events that led to the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution. Also, outline the controversy associated with these events.
Gulf Of Tonkin Resolution is a resolution that was put before the US Congress by President Lyndon Johnson on August 5, 1964 as a reaction to two related unprovoked attacks on US Seventh Fleet in the Gulf of Tonkin, the Maddox and C. Turner Joy by North Vietnamese torpedo on August 2, and August 4 respectively (Young, 1991). The purpose of the resolution was to support and approve the determination of the president as a commander in chief to consider any suitable measure to deter any armed attack against United State’s forces and to avert any further aggression. The resolution also proclaimed that maintenance of security and peace in Southeast Asia was central to US interest and to the world peace.
As it turned out later and well understood that the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution was a fraud. The resolution was not drafted because of the alleged attack on American ships in the Tonkin Gulf. In real sense, it had been secretly prepared long before by Lyndon Johnson as he campaigned as the next American president. The resolution was a fraud because the resulting events were two alleged attacks by the North Vietnamese forces upon the Maddox in the Tonkin Gulf (Gettleman, Marvin, Franklin, Franklin, & Young, 1995). It has come out as a known fact that that the two alleged attacks on the Maddox never took place and that the Congress was well aware of this possibility at the time of passing the resolution. In addition to this, the first attack was as a result of continuous help that the American provided to South Vietnamese military actions against North Vietnamese installations in the area. The theory behind the passage of the Resolution by the Congress was to put forth and deter a wide war, and not to create one (Ly & Wurts, 2003). What Johnson and the rest of the criminals wanted at that time was to secure the Resolution on the grounds that it would prevent a wider war, and the use the Resolution as an authorization to fight a larger war.
Describe the various uses of air power, including helicopters, napalm, and bombing campaigns, throughout the war and the impact that these campaigns had in North Vietnam, South Vietnam, and other countries
After passing the Resolution, the next objective for the America was launch a major attack on Vietnam. The US used its strong air power including helicopters, napalm, and bombing campaigns throughout the war with significant implications on Vietnam and other nations. The US started massive air attacks after Johnson authorized an air campaign against North Vietnam. This was after several small air attacks directed at a trail leading through Laos, Cambodia and into South Vietnam failed. The operation dubbed as Rolling Thunder involved use of strong air power. The Rolling Thunder led to emergence of the best modern aviation could offer. The aircrafts that were used more extensively during the war included the A-6 Intruder, F-4 Phantom, the B-52 Stratofortress, F-105 Thunderchief among many others (Ly & Wurts, 2003). The F-105 Thunderchief was developed to respond to ever escalating anti-aircraft defense system of North Vietnam by using anti-radar missiles and bombs. This mission was latter named Wild Weasel mission and is universally acknowledged as the most dangerous duties on air.
Another essential component of the war was airborne warning and controls system (AWACS) planes. These planes had been designed to spot nuclear bombers from the Soviet as they approach North America. AWACS planes mission in Vietnam changed to determining nationality and location of each plane, finding enemy fighters, and directing US aircraft to refueling tanks. In addition, helicopters were involved in all aspects of the war. Bombs were extensively use in the war to paralyze any attempt by North Vietnam to gain access into South Vietnam. These weakened the North Vietnamese forces and forced to come down to peace talks. The air attack on North Vietnam only helped to derail their frantic efforts to raid South Vietnam but it did not help. North Vietnam invaded South Vietnam in 1975 after the war had ended and conquered the country in two months.
Explain the significance of 1968, with specific focus on the Tet Offensive, in the general course of the Vietnam War.
The year 1968 saw significant developments in the Vietnam War. During the Tet Holiday, the Vietcong and the Vietnam People’s Army (NVA) mounted major attacks in most major cities of the country. The Tet Offensive began on January 30, 1968 when VC and NVA forces attacked both cities and towns of South Vietnam, breaking a ceasefire that had been passed for the Vietnamese holiday of Tet (Ly & Wurts, 2003). Even though the ferocity and size of the attack was a surprise to both US and South Vietnamese, they both fought back. The US and ARVN forces were able to successful defeat the Vietcong assault through use of heavy combat in major cities. The Communist did not receive the populous uprising they had hoped for.
In some cities, the communists were repelled quickly, but it took weeks to fight them. The Communists were able to occupy the US embassy for eight hours before the US soldiers could overtake them. In military terms, the US military came out as the winner of the Tet Offensive because the Communists did not gain control over South Vietnam. In addition, the Communist forces faced heavy losses with more than 45,000 killed. However, the incidents of Tet Offensive captured public attention after the media aired images of Americans killed and wounded in the action (Young, 1991). The public support started dwindling as Americans started questioning the handling of the conflict. Others questioned Westmoreland’s ability to command, resulting into his replacement with General Creighton Abrahams. The popularity of President Johnson plummeted and he withdrew as a candidate for reelection. The growing media attention on the credibility of the war did the most in damaging administration efforts of Johnson. Despite the low expectations he had, Johnson conceded and initiated peace talks with North Vietnam in May 1968.
How was it possible for US forces to win every battle and still fail to make significant and lasting headway against the Viet Cong and NLF?
It is always difficult for a country to continue fighting without getting the support of its citizens. In real sense, the US acted well on a military sense, winning majority of the battles fought but it still failed to make significant headways against the Viet Cong and NLF. The defeat came as a result of political fallout and pressure. Due to anti-war pressure coming from American citizens, the media had caused irreparable damage that forced America into early withdrawal in 1973 (Ly & Wurts, 2003). Another reason why the US forces could not make any significant lasting headway against the Viet Cong and NLF was that the premise of the scope and mission of what the goal was in the war was entirely not clear (Young, 1991). The presented reason for assisting South Vietnamese was not fully understood due to lack of capacity to assume leadership and massive corruption in the South Vietnamese government. Both South and North Vietnamese never fully acknowledged the idea of removing illegitimate government as they later came to resent presence of American forces in the region.
Most Americans never found any sense on the idea of defining victory by attrition, and ended up associating the war with more cost, more death, and more sacrifice than they were originally made to believe. The US was fighting for no probable cause which meant that their presence in Vietnam was to wage a war that had no means or end. In conclusion, there were confusion regarding the mission and Americans had no interest in winning “the war” as the American soldiers involved in it were. Military solution is never possible without clear objectives (for those who believe in military solutions). This war was like asking the troops to conduct an impossible task. Americans could not win a war they had not even declared for.
Trace the major events of the Vietnam War during the presidency of Richard Nixon, from the beginning of Nixon’s first term through Nixon’s resignation.
Richard Nixon came into office as the thirty-seventh president of the US on February 20, 1969. The priority of Nixon was statecraft, involving the application of American power and diplomatic influence to both regional and global issues. His major concern was the Vietnam War which had driven his predecessor out of office, and if he could not apply his political tactics in solving the issue, he could also be driven out of office as well.
During his first tenure in office, Nixon promised the American public that he would reduce the number of US troops in Vietnam. He would pursue this through “Vietnamization”, whereby the US troops would gradually withdraw from the war leaving the South Vietnamese to continue with the war. Despite this pledge, the number of US troops in the country increased with expanded operation into neighboring countries of Cambodia and Laos.
In mid-March 1969, a secret bombing campaign was launched against Cambodia. This remained secrete to the Congress and the American people for two year. Later in 1970, bombing was renewed over Vietnam after it had been stopped by President Johnson in 1968 (Ly & Wurts, 2003). On April 4, 1969 following an attack on a US plane, Nixon ordered that reconnaissance flights off of North Korea be resumed. These renewed attacks triggered renewed antiwar protests in America which led to death of some protestors. On the other hand, North Vietnam had its own plans. In March 27, 1969, Nixon proposed a plan in which the Unites States and North Vietnam would agree to withdraw forces from South Vietnam. However, in November 1971, peace talks were suspended by Washington and in 1972, both sides temporarily suspended participation in the talks. In 1973, during his final years in office, the last US troops left Vietnam, but some marines and military advisers remained.
References:
Gettleman, M.E., Marvin, E., Franklin, B. H., Franklin, J., & Young, M. eds. (1995). Vietnam And America: A Documented History. New York: Grove Press.
Ly, H. L., & Wurts, J. (2003). When Heaven and Earth Changed Places: A Vietnamese Woman’s Journey from War to Peace. New York: Penguin.
Young, M. B. (1991). The Vietnam Wars: 1945-1990. New York: Harper Collins.
