Introduction
Ethics is a concept that permeates all aspects of life. Ethical theories provide guidance to a way of life for many people. Businesses and organizations are held to ethical standards for the activities in which they engage. There are many ethical theories that have been postulated by different scholars. The perspectives of these theories hold different premises. The choice of an ethical theory either for personal or professional life depends on ones views and moral predispositions. However, a proper ethical theory should have certain general characteristics that cut across the general board. This is the topic of this paper, tempered by a review of different ethical theories.
A Review of Ethical Theories
Egoism
Egoism is a doctrine that holds the view that individual self-interest is the real motive behind every conscious action. The doctrine holds that the valid end to every conscious action is self interest. Proponents of this theory have excessive concerns for themselves and some may have an exaggerated sense of self importance. Egomaniacal individuals identify with this theory because it gives them a sense of right (Al-Rodhan, 2008).
Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism is a normative ethical theory that holds that a proper course of action is one that optimizes utility. By optimizing utility, the theorists conceptualized it to mean reducing personal suffering and maximizes on happiness. In this theory, the resulting outcome determines the moral worth of every action. The grey area in this theory is the amount of consideration that should be accorded to intended, foreseen and actual consequences. This theory is unlike egoism because it does not glorify self-interests, especially if in the pursuit if the same, one causes personal suffering (Mill, 1962).
Deontology
This is a normative ethical theory that holds the morality of any action is judged by the adherence to set rules by the perpetrator of an action. The basis of this theory of ethics is obligation, duty and rules. The theory argues that rules bind an individual to duty. This theory upholds the rue of the law and requires that all moral acts be judged on its adherence of the established laws (MacKinnon, 2012).
Virtue Ethics
In the view of this theory, one’s character has an important part to play in determining the morality of an action. The theory holds that one’s character is the standard for evaluating the morality in an action and consequently determining ethical behavior (Shafer-Landau, 2012).
Rights Theory
In this theory of ethics, the rights that are established by a society have the highest priorities and are protected. The endorsement of rights by a ruling or large population gives established rights a sense of validity and correctness. As such, an action that is in contravention of established rights is immoral and is the embodiment of immoral behavior (Fiore, & Nelson, 2003).
Human Rights
Human rights refer to particular moral guarantees that one is granted for simply being of the human race. This is dominant doctrine of morality that is used to evaluate the morality of the geo-political order in the contemporary society (Sweet, 2003).
Definition of the Primary Standard
In determining the proper ethical theory for personal and professional life, a primary standard is important. A primary standard is the reference by which an ethical theory is judged for appropriateness. A primary standard consists of different aspects that a proper ethical theory, whether for use in one’s professional life or personal life should address. Chiefly, the aspects that form the primary standard include intent, consequences, virtuous behavior, generalizability and rights.
- Intent
Intent is a very important aspect of the primary standard to be used in determining the appropriateness of an ethical theory. Intent has been the subject of raging debates over its relevance in ethics and morality. The debate pits the relevance of one’s intention in doing something in morality and ethics. A good ethical theory should pay particular attention to choices. Choices that are made with some degree of deliberations should be viewed as unethical especially if they hurt or inflict harm onto others. Intentional omissions should also have as much significance as actions when weighing in on the appropriateness of an ethical theory. Using aspect in the primary standard, evaluations should consider the intent behind an action to determine whether it is ethical or not.
- Consequences
For every action, there are consequences. The consequences of an individual’s actions should weigh in on the determination of whether or not an action is moral. Those theorists that hold the Consequentialist standpoint posit that the outcomes of an individual determine the morality of one’s conduct. More precisely, good actions are those that provoke good outcomes. However, when using this aspect to weigh in on the appropriateness of an ethical theory, one should exercise caution not to use this aspect in exclusion, but to allow the effect of other aspects of the primary standard. It is also important to define what constitutes good outcomes. This is because good outcomes might vary with the different perspectives. For instance, is killing someone a good outcome in any conceivable way? These are the dilemmas that this aspect faces.
- Virtuous behavior
A primary standard evaluates the nature of the behavior glorified by ethical theories to determine whether or not it is virtuous. Virtuous behavior is that which conforms to morals and ethical principles. For instance, reasoning is an important feature in ethics. All actions should be tempered by rational reasoning. Good actions emanating from such rational thinking are thought to be virtuous.
- Generalizability
Generalizability is the ability of a theory to apply in diverse settings and conditions. A proper ethical theory whether for personal or professional life should be one that can apply in diverse place and conditions. The workplace is a full of diversity presently. A good ethical theory should be able to guide one’s actions so that no one is aggrieved even if from a different cultural background. As such the practicability of such a theory in diverse backgrounds is what makes it appropriate.
- Rights
Rights form part of the primary standard by which ethical theories are evaluated. Any appropriate ethical theory should uphold human rights. It should abhor those who violate human rights. The application of the primary standard in this manner is to evaluate the position of an ethical theory on human rights.
Application of the primary Standard
In using the primary standard to evaluate what an ethical theory looks like, the combination of different aspects of the primary standard is important. While some of the aspects are excusable, others should feature prominently in any proper theory whether it is for personal or professional use. Any proper ethical theory should uphold human rights as a universal guarantee for all individuals. Such a theory should guide actions individual actions towards exhorting the sanctity of life and the sacredness of human life. Other aspects that should be incorporated include intent. The intentions that informed someone’s actions should also be considered, the consequences of such actions notwithstanding (Reamer, 2006).
Characteristics of a Proper Ethical theory
There are other considerations that ought to be taken into place when how a proper ethical theory should look. These include the characteristics of a good ethical theory. They also apply to theories for both personal and professional use. A good ethical theory should emphasize the need for every individual to develop a sense of moral obligation and consequently identify the overriding factors and the binding forces that inspire moral obligation. This implies it should inspire people to take it as their duty to act morally and to shun immoral acts.
This will not only encourage virtuous behavior but also encourage moral accountability. This is a phenomenon where individuals account for the morality or immorality of their actions. This implies that such an ethical theory would stipulate punishments for transgressors in order to discourage unethical behavior, otherwise there would exist no different between compliance with the ethical principles of the theory and transgressing. Contrary to popular opinion that kindness and compassion are mere hollow abstractions, a proper ethical theory will justify that these among other are virtues that inform good and ethical behavior (Geirsson & Holmgren, 2000).
A proper ethical theory also should also justify why there is more to life that pursuing self-interests and seeking self-indulgence. This concept exemplifies the satisfaction that can be derived from self-sacrifice and heroism as opposed to egocentrism and selfishness. Finally, a proper ethical theory refrains from endorsing self-chosen, flexible and relative morality that one can choose and discard at will.
Conclusion
Different theories on ethics hold different positions. One’s choice on the ethical theory to profess is dependent on one’s disposition among other things. The discussion highlighted the weight of intent, consequences, rights, generalizability and virtuous behavior in determining how a proper ethical theory should look. This is tempered by the characteristics that feature in a proper ethical theory. More emphasis was placed on the inflexibility of a proper ethical theory in that it should not be relative. Rather it should apply in the same fashion at all times.
References
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Fiore, R. N., & Nelson, H. L. (2003). Recognition, responsibility, and rights: Feminist ethics and social theory. Lanham, Md. Rowman & Littlefield.
Geirsson, H., & Holmgren, M. R. (2000). Ethical theory: A concise anthology. Peterborough, Ont: Broadview Press.
MacKinnon, B. (2012). Ethics: Theory and contemporary issues, concise edition. Belmont, Calif: Wadsworth/Cengage Learning.
Mill, J. S. (1962). Utilitarianism: On liberty ; Essay on Bentham. Fontana.
Reamer, F. G. (2006). Social work values and ethics. New York: Columbia University Press.
Shafer-Landau, R. (2012). Ethical Theory: An Anthology. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons.
Sweet, W. (2003). Philosophical theory and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Ottawa. University of Ottawa Press.
