Racial inequality has always been rampant in many societies, as it is reflected in white privilege seen not only in the United States but also in Canada, Australia, Israel, and in many countries in Asia and Africa. In white privilege, there is racial advantage on the benefits of the Whites, as they enjoy greater earnings, life expectancies, and access to high-quality education and healthcare services, as compared to the Blacks. This is the effect of what is called stigma—a sociological concept that Erving Goffman developed in his book in the year 1963. Kowal (2011) repeated the words of Goffman (1963) that stigma is actually “a physical mark on a slave or criminal to indicate their blemished status to the public” (p.316). It is the opposite mark to privilege, for whoever carries the stigma induces a decrease in other’s estimation, from an esteemed to one that is lesser, much discrediting valuation.
The White Privilege
In the modern context, stigma is defined as “an undesired differentness” (Goffman, 1963, p.5), which decreases the appraisal of the viewer to one that is of lesser category. However, in the concept of white stigma, the opposite takes place wherein there is an increase in the appraisal of the viewer when witnessing the mark of white skin. White is therefore, seen as one that is associated with privilege, wealth, and education, as opposed to Black or colored skin. Peggy McIntosh (1990) tried to explain this when she said, “White privilege is like an invisible weightless knapsack of special provisions, maps, passports, codebooks, visas, clothes, tools, and blank checks” (p.31). White privilege is defined as
the concrete benefits of access to resources and social rewards and the power to shape the norms and values of society that whites receive, unconsciously or consciously, by virtue of their skin color in a racist society.
(Feagin & O’Brien, 2003, p.237)
With this, it gives an unearned advantage to the Whites, as well as deliberated dominance, to the point that there is tendency for discrimination to take place between Whites and Blacks or those who have colored skin. There is likewise, imperialism and exploitation, for there is racial discrimination in their dominance over the Black or Colored ones. This was the effect of two centuries of slavery against the Black Society, which enforced racial segregation among those living in the United States. As an effect of history, there happens to be some form of marginality between the Whites and the Blacks, including those who have colored skin. These Blacks have long been seen as outsiders of the community. Hunt & Bowser (1996), in their book, described the Black Society in the following words:
They (the Blacks) are neither immigrants nor aliens. They perceive themselves and are perceived, even by white racists as belonging to American society Blacks have been Americans of a lower caste (Hunt & Bowser, 1996, p.xii)
With this, it is evident how the Whites are filled with privileges and advantages, as opposed to the Blacks that are marked by discrimination. They are said to be “the most residentially segregated group by far in the urban United States” (Hunt & Bowser, 1996, p.xii). Even black-white intermarriages are said to have the lowest rate in any major groups within the country, as they are disapproved usually by the Whites, mainly as an effect of racism.
Defining Racial Discrimination
For the Blacks and those with colored skin, the term racial discrimination may be defined as a “direct hostility expressed by whites toward members of a disadvantaged racial group” (Blank, Dabady, & Citro, 2004, p.56). It operates across many domains, including education, employment, criminal justice, health, and housing. Still, although there is similarity between these channels of discrimination, it may either be a direct behavior or one that is done unconsciously by an individual. Discrimination can be an intentional, explicit act by which an individual behaves negatively toward members of another racial group, either through verbal antagonism, segregation, avoidance, extermination, or physical attack. On the other hand, it can also be a subtle, unconscious, automatic type of discrimination through the use of prejudicial attitudes towards members of another racial group. Here, the members of the in-group experience an internal conflict, which results from the disconnection between societal rejection, as well as, societal persistence of the racist attitudes (Blank, Dabady, & Citro, 2004, p.59). As Blank, Dabady, & Citro (2004) stated, “People’s intentions may be good, but their racially biased cognitive categories and associations may persist” (p.59). What takes place is a subtle prejudice that affect people’s cognitive and affective responses.
There is discrimination whenever the Whites carry the power to control conversations and to have their ideas taken seriously by those surrounding them. More likely, they will not be challenged or refuted by people, with no hate groups attacking them simply because of their race. They are given early opportunities to show people what they can do, and they are more likely to be chosen as candidates for promotion at work and in art or sport. They are likewise mentored and are given a second chance whenever they fail, and they are being treated positively whenever they fail, insisting that the catastrophe was a learning experience. They expect that by just playing by the rules and doing the best they can, they get the praise and award that they deserve, unlike other racial groups who do not get these advantages.
The Role of White Privilege in Racial Discrimination
There are certain institutional examples found within the society about white privilege and its role in racial discrimination taking place in countries like the United States of America. Firstly, the Whites are less likely to be arrested than the Blacks, and they are less likely to be convicted or to go to prison regardless of their crime. Secondly, the Whites are more likely to have their loan applications approved than the Blacks or the Colored. Thirdly, the Whites are usually charged with lower prices when purchasing cars, as when compared to the Blacks or those of colored skin. Fourthly, the Whites usually represent the ruling class in universities, corporations, and organizations. Fifthly, the Whites usually access the best quality of job opportunities, clinics and hospitals, schools and universities, as well as community services, as compared to the Blacks and those with colored skin (Potapchuk, 2005, p.56). With all these, there happens to be some racial discrimination taking place mainly as an effect of white privilege and the advantage that the Whites receive from the society, all because of their skin color. They are more likely to have their rights honored, with them enjoying their freedom, and receive superior honor and dignity, as they have greater chances of controlling the public mainly as an effect of their skin color.
All these can be attributed to the fact that there are things like unearned entitlements that are being restricted to certain groups. As Maggie Potapchuk (2005) tried to restate the words that Peggy McIntosh (1988) mentioned in her book, it was said that:
[W]e need to acknowledge that there are unearned entitlements—things that all people should have—such as feeling safe in public places, free speech, the ability to work in a place where we feel we can do our best work, and being valued for what we can contribute. (Potapchuk, 2005, p.55)
All these, however, are not freely available to citizens of all races, and so there happens to be an unearned advantage—the white privilege—to those who are of white skin, as opposed to those who are of colored skin. In this conferred dominance, the Whites are given power over the others and so, there happens to be an unequal distribution of rewards and resources.
How to Take Away Racial Discrimination
In order to take away racial discrimination and level the playing field, the answer lies on racial assimilation, as it was seen in Australia during the nation divide in the 1970s, and Aboriginal children were put into institutions for the act of assimilation. In the controversial debate on the institutionalization of Aboriginal children, A.O. Neville, who was the Western Australian Commissioner for Native Affairs, asked the question:
Are we going to have a population of one million blacks in the Commonwealth or are we going to merge them into our white community and eventually forget that there were any aborigines in Australia? (Kowal, 2011, p.320)
In this question, Neville seemed to say that in taking way racial discrimination from the society, and for racial equity to take place instead, the answer lies in the process of assimilation, in which every citizen should share the same rights and privileges as others. There should be no racial identity within the region, but a national identity that should expose what the races share in their rights and privileges as with respect to their history. For this to take place, there should be no white stigma, which gives them the mark that they carry all the benefits and rights, or that they are responsible for discrimination taking place. All races should have the freedom to express themselves and carry on their conversations with others. They should only remember they convey the privileges the same way that other races do.
Conclusion
White privilege has a cost, even to those who are blind to their skin color. The Whites sometimes neglect and ignore the issues of racial discrimination mainly because they do not carry the negative consequences of the racial issues continuing to haunt the society. As compared to those who constantly experience the tragedies brought by their skin color, the Whites on the other hand, are almost unaware of the costs of being White, which can then do the greatest harm in the structural level. At the minimum, it can collude with the practices, norms, policies, and systems that have the capacity to underestimate and hurt the racial groups of color and thus, can destroy the society through racism. Therefore, the answer lies on three things: (1) the knowledge and awareness of structural racism; (2) the heart to understand the effects of racism; and (3) the hand to work with the community to instill racial equity and justice within the society. By acting strategically and behaving with the heart and the mind, racial discrimination can be disrupted for a more positive, equitable future society.
References:
Blank, R.M., Dabady, M., & Citro, C.F. (2004). Measuring racial discrimination. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. Print.
Feagin, J., & O’Brien, E. (2003). White men on race: Power, privilege, and the shaping of cultural consciousness. Boston, Beacon Press. Print.
Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma: notes on the management of spoiled identity. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Print.
Hunt, R.G., & Bowser, B. (1996). Impacts of racism on White Americans (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. Print.
Kowal, E. (2011). The stigma of white privilege. Cultural Studies, 25(3), 313-333. doi: 10.1080/09502386.2010.491159
McIntosh, P. (1990, Winter). White privilege: Unpacking the invisible knapsack. Independent School, 49(2), 31-35.
Potapchuk, M. (2005). “Chapter 6: What is white privilege?” In M. Potapchuk, S. Leiderman, D. Bivens, & B. Major’s (Eds.), Flipping the script: White privilege and community building (pp.53-67). Silver Spring, MD: MP Associates, Inc. Print.
