Introduction
Health has become a major concern for women. Aside from degrading their quality of life, health issues and weaknesses also contribute to society’s perception of them, which in turn shape their perception of themselves.
Although modern society strives to achieve a sense of equality between the sexes and EVEN as more research is being conducted in efforts to understand and address women’s health issues, it is evident that a lot of prejudice and discrimination still exist around this aspect of women’s lives.
Orientations Toward Health and Illness by Gustafson
Gustafson (272) explains two orientations for getting a better understanding of girls’ and women’s health. These are the biomedical model and the population health model.
The biomedical model is disease-oriented, that is, it focuses on the determination of the internal factors, such as germs and genes, “that cause and protect against disease” (Gustafson 273). It is also individual-oriented in that it is concerned with addressing the individual’s health needs rather than those of the population. These health model concerns the infirmity, disability, functions, and malfunctions of the physical body, as well as the management, cure, treatment, and diagnosis of disease.
The health population model, on the other hand, is population-oriented in that it is based on the assumption that health is a valuable resource and a capacity that allows groups of people to “engage in productive lives (Gustafson 274). It is aimed at the evaluation of the different factors that affect the population’s health in a specific geographical location or that is defined by certain common features. In this model, health problems are attributed to inadequacies in supportive social networks, safe housing, and proper nutrition. As such, this model advocates for the creation and maintenance of healthy infrastructures and communities through the equal redistribution of power and social resources. They focus on providing interventions that influence the conditions that determine “a population’s chances of being healthy” (Gustafson 274).
In relating this to women’s health, the biomedical model is concerned with providing individual treatment to diseases such as endometriosis while the health population model is more concerned with the promotion of safe sex for the prevention of pelvic infections.
Linkages between the Need for Knowledge and Control and the Determinants of Health
Women need knowledge and control of the determinants of health in order to become capable of making informed decisions for themselves (WOMN 1005EL 10 227). This will also enable them to take preventive measures in order to ensure good health and to form self-help groups.
Unfortunately, there is limited information and knowledge about women’s health and their bodies. Moreover, some of the available information is incorrect. Examples of these are the incorrect beliefs and the prejudices about the sexuality of women and their “capacity for sexual response” (WOMN 1005EL 10 228). Some cultural taboos also make women excessively modest or shameful about their bodies, which can prevent them from doing things such as looking at their genitalia or talking about their menstruation cycle, which can help them learn more about their bodies. In addition, there is a notion that it’s not necessary for women to be knowledgeable about their bodies and that it would be best for them to leave such concerns to their doctors.
Without sufficient knowledge, women are unable to gain control of their lives. They are instead being easily controlled by others because of their ignorance. It is then important for women to be knowledgeable of their bodies in order to be empowered. In particular, the three areas where women should have knowledge and control are drug use, birth control, and birthing options. These are three areas that can have a major impact on women’s lives.
For example, women should be properly informed of the effects that drugs have on their bodies so that they can make a decision on whether to undergo the treatment or not. They have the right to know about any adverse effects these drugs or treatments may have on their health. They should also have sufficient knowledge on birth control, as forcing them to give birth may cause them to lose their job or their opportunity for an education. On the other hand, when a woman does choose to give birth then she should be able to choose how she wants the birthing process to go.
The Gendered and Cultural Misconceptions that Have Affected Women’s View of Their Own Biology and Sexuality
The female body’s portrayal in the media, literature, and pornography has changed the way the body is perceived because these media present “unrealistic ideals of the female beauty” (WOMN 1005EL), which bring about feelings of disgust, fear, and a desire to dominate in women. Publications are rich with messages on the right way a woman should look, giving birth to various notions on things such as weight, mental illness, menstruation, and menopause.
Because of women’s obsession with their weight, they end up being constantly dissatisfied and aware of their bodies. With the media and the fashion industry continuing to reinforce the value of women’s appearances, women who fail to measure up are subjected to feelings of insecurity, guilt, and self-hate.
Menstruation has been made another source of shame for women. Various cultures subject menstruating women to different forms of rituals. It is considered a form of impurity not only by tribal cultures but even by some religions. In addition, it has become a cause for discrimination of women in some organizations and educational institutions.
Although modern society is now more open to this aspect of a woman’s life as information about it is now more accessible, “the belief that biology determines behavior” (WOMN 1005EL 10 243-244) still persists. For example, PMS is seen as a mental illness instead of being considered as the effect of the physical discomfort and pain that women experience during menstruation.
In the same manner, a seeming ignorance about menopause make medical practitioners consider it a clinical disorder of the ovary” or a “metabolic endocrine disorder” (WOMN 1005EL 10 245) that is caused by an endocrine deficiency. It is seen as a disease that needs to be treated. On the contrary, though, women who have actually gone through menopause don’t accord much significance to the event and certainly don’t see it as something that needs to be cured.
Still another source of misconceptions about women are the myths pertaining to women’s sexuality (WOMN 1005EL 10 247). A change in women’s sexual behavior has been met with a lot of clashes and challenges that stem from conflicts between old and new values and the notions and “uncertainties on how things should be” (WOMN 1005EL 10 247).
Fears of female independence have greatly influenced the norms surrounding women’s sexual behavior. It has been harshly controlled through the rigid rules on marital fidelity, chastity, and virginity. These rules, the negative perceptions about the female body, as well as sexual abuse from men, imply that “sexuality is a key element in the subjection of women” (WOMN 1005EL 10 247)
Barriers Faced by lesbian Women and Women with Disabilities (2 pages)
Misconceptions about women’s sexuality translate to the health system where lesbians get the most of the brunt. Information on lesbian health and lesbian health needs does not exist (Ramsay 22).
It can however, be assumed that lesbians share the same health concerns as heterosexual women, which include health problems, complications, physical changes, and sexual and reproductive opportunities. It should be noted, though, that they don’t suffer as much from gynecological diseases as heterosexual women do.
Since lesbians rarely see a gynecologist due to past homophobic experiences and the fear of disclosure, they are less likely to be screened for cervical or breast cancer. In addition, since lesbians are considered to have a low risk of contracting AIDS, very little information is available on how they are still exposed to this disease. As a result, lesbians have been slow to adopting safe sex practices and are not keen on taking the necessary precautions to protect themselves against sexually transmitted diseases. Although there is very little information about the transmission of these diseases between two women, doctors do claim (Ramsay 22) that there has been an increase in the instances of these diseases among lesbians.
Lesbians are also faced with poor medical services, given that most medical practitioners claim they have never treated lesbian patients (Ramsay 23). This prevents lesbians from getting health information that’s specific to them and also makes them feel suppressed in asking for such information. In addition, it’s not only the physicians who seem ignorant about this sexual orientation. Even the general public is uneducated when about it, which often leads to homophobia.
Another barrier to lesbian’s health is when they decide to have children through adoption, intercourse, or artificial insemination. They are bound to experience issues on lesbian parenting or co-parenting, childbirth, infertility, and pregnancy. However, lesbians, as of now, can neither legally adopt nor can they legally access the services of medical fertility clinics. As a result, a lot of lesbians resort to community-based, unregulated, and informal artificial insemination networks.
Yet another “neglected” group in the female population is the one of disabled women (Odette 41), with very little research available on their experiences. Although their issues may differ from those of other women, it still stands that they share the same fears, experiences and lives as those of non-disabled women.
Because of the misconceptions of the female body that are brought about by culture, women with disabilities, fat women, women from particular ethnic or social groups, non-heterosexual women, and other women who fail to conform to the norms of social desirability are often isolated. They are considered to have different attributes and experiences from other women.
Just like most women, disabled women are also subjected to messages about physical appearances that cause them to feel insecure. Moreover, they receive messages about how they are incapable of performing the roles expected of women and how their lack of attractiveness prevents them from becoming intimate. All of these contribute to eating problems and body-image dissatisfaction.
As well, culture has a negative perception of disability, which is evidenced by the media not reflecting the lives of disabled women. Moreover, they portray the lives of the disabled in a manner that associates it with “child-like dependency, monster like anger, or super-human fears” (Odette 41-42). This only adds to the discomfort others feel around these women and contributes further to their isolation.
As a result, disabled women try to sacrifice their health and comfort for the sake of obtaining a closer resemblance to what the normal body looks like. They manipulate their bodies through constricting, cutting, shaving, plucking, and continuous dieting (Odette 42).
While non-disabled women are objectified and treated as commodities whose qualities are defined by “white, able-bodied, heterosexual men” (Odette 42), disabled women are objectified by the medical process where doctors subject them through medical examinations and where doctors are authorized to observe the women as they dress themselves or perform other activities as part of the doctors’ procedures. In addition, some of these women are made to undergo a number of surgeries in hopes of getting cured, but only end up having their physical state altered and experiencing even more pain and discomfort. Whether the surgical or medical procedure is to provide treatment or to beautify, it sends the message that the body of a disabled woman as it is in the present is neither desirable nor acceptable.
The Feminist Perspective on Women’s Mental Health
Mental health workers claim that mental illness is so prevalent in women that most women would have experienced this problem at some degree (WOMN 1005EL 10 251). However, Dorothy Smith (WOMN 1005EL 10 251) notes that findings are greatly influenced by how “statistics are selected and presented” (WOMN 1005EL 10 251). For example, an inconsistency is evident when some studies don’t classify predominantly male problems such as drug dependencies and alcoholic psychoses as mental illnesses while others do. On the other hand, it is true that “women are more likely to be diagnosed as depressed than men and to use outpatient psychiatric services.
The feminist perspective on women’s mental health (WOMN 1005EL 10 251) considers women’s life situations and the various factors in these situations that contribute to their depression. This perspective considers not only the individual lives but takes them as “part of a pattern of women’s experience in a larger social context” (WOMN 1005EL 10 251). For example, women smoke to cope with stress; hence, a higher rate of smoking among single mothers (WOM 1005EL 10 251). As well, researchers have found that there are more incidents of psychiatric problems among single mothers than mothers in two-parent families (WOMN 1005EL 10 251). As such, feminists state (WOMN 1005EL 10 251) that our mental health practices and policies should take into consideration the social implications of being female, as well as the social context that contribute to women’s health, when conducting an evaluation or research on women’s mental health.
Conclusion
Research continues to be conducted in the area of women’s health, with the aim of getting a better understanding of the health issues women face sand how they can be addressed. Gustafson uses the biomedical model and the health population model for this.
It has been determined that knowledge and control are necessary in empowering women to take care of their health and take the necessary preventive measures. However, gendered and cultural misconceptions about the female body make this feat difficult to achieve, and it’s even more difficult for lesbians and disabled women who are considered different from the rest. Finally, societal factors contribute to the mental well-being of women and should thus be considered when evaluating and studying women’s mental health.
Works Cited
Gustafson, Diana L. Underpinnings and Understandings of Girls’ and Women’s Health. Feminist
Issues: Race, Class ad Sexuality, Fifth Edition. By Mandell. Canada:
Pearson Education, 2009. 272-297
Odette, F. “Body Beautiful/Body Perfect: Challenging the Status Quo: Where Do Women with
Disabilities Fit In?” Canadian Woman Studies 14. 3 (1994): 41-43. Print.
Ramsay, H. “Lesbians and the Health Care System: Invisibility, Isolation and Ignorance – You Say You’re a What?” Canadian Woman Studies 14. 3 (1994): 22-27. Print
WOMN 1005EL 10 Unit 14-15
