Drinking alcohol means different things to different people. For some, it is often a social activity associated with pleasure, leisure, and relaxation. It may also be a response to peer pressure, thus fulfilling the need to fit in and belong. Having too much alcohol or binge drinking is associated with serious and chronic illnesses as well as violent and reckless behaviors that compromise the health and safety of the drinker including the people around them. Although an increasing number of women also drink, there seem to be variances compared to men. This paper hypothesizes that alcohol has a differential impact on women’s health, wellbeing, and safety. An attempt is made to understand the practical implications of this claim, the supporting evidence, and relevant sociological concepts with specific reference to female college students.
Applicable Sociological Concepts
A greater understanding of alcohol-related behaviors among college students in general is derived from using the social learning theories of Bandura and Akers. Meanwhile, the gender role theory helps elucidate gender differences in relation to alcohol consumption and consequences.
Social Learning Theory
Bandura’s social learning theory posits that behaviors are learned in a social context. By observing and imitating others in their environment, individuals adopt behaviors enabling the socialization of norms and values (LaBrie et al., 2007). The environment includes family, teachers, peers, and schoolmates, as well as mass media and movie personalities. Learning through observation consists of the following elements: attention to an event, retention of what was observed, reproduction of the behavior, and motivation or reinforcement (Ogborne, 2004). The social learning theory also presupposes that the likelihood of a person adopting a behavior depends on whether they value the outcomes or not. People are also more likely to mimic the behaviors of people they identify or have similarities with.
Observational learning. The concept of observational learning or imitation in social learning applies to alcohol use as influenced by reality television, a recently developed and highly popular genre claiming to document the real lives of people. The show Keeping Up with the Kardashians, for example, depicts what it is like to be a Kardashian by airing episodes on the professional and personal lives of its rich and famous family members. Critiques of the show note that consuming alcoholic beverages were normal occurrences among men and women during family events (McClain, 2014). In season 5 of the show, Bruce Jenner who is the father, got drunk in a club while bonding with his son and despite his appearance, speech, and actions indicative of intoxication, he drove himself home. One episode also shows a preteen girl and boy mixing drinks for the adults behind a bar during their parents’ wedding anniversary party. Another show entitled Jersey Shore follows young male and female Italian Americans who regular engaged in binge drinking and risky sexual behaviors (Matheson, 2011).
In a study of the association between reality TV and the beliefs and behaviors of college students in relation to alcohol, the participants concurred overwhelmingly that such shows glamorized and normalized alcohol consumption (Paredes, Cantu & Graf, 2013). Thus, people who value the kind of lifestyle and outcomes depicted in such shows would likely engage in binge drinking and its attendant sexual behaviors. The likelihood further increases especially when reinforced by the fact that there were no negative or serious consequences depicted alongside such behaviors or consequences such as an unplanned pregnancy and getting a citation for driving under the influence are also glamorized. Adopting the behaviors modeled on TV is also more likely when other aspects of the environment such as peers provide reinforcement.
Differential association and reinforcement. Differential association in Aker’s social learning theory, on the other hand, suggests that the persons an individual directly interacts with, referred to as primary associations, or indirectly interacts with because they serve as a reference group, referred to as secondary associations, represent an environment for exposure to certain behaviors (Akers, 2011). Within this social context, behaviors are defined in positive or negative terms. Definitions are relative wherein deviant behaviors may or may not be regarded in a positive light. The earlier and longer the association is, as well as the more frequent and closer in terms of relationship, the greater the probability of behaviors defined as correct, right, acceptable, positive, desirable, or justified being imitated by a person (Akers, 2011). Thus, the greatest influences to alcohol consumption seem to be family members and peers because of the strength, frequency, and duration of associations. Differential reinforcement, on the other hand, pertains to past and present individual experiences of consequences to specific behaviors (Akers, 2011). A person’s expectations of reward and punishment significantly influence the decision to engage in an act or not.
Specifically among male and female college students, a study found that risk-taking behaviors such as alcohol consumption and binge drinking most frequently occurred in the presence of friends than alone or in the company of significant others and family (Varela & Pritchard, 2011). This suggests that peer relationships are strong associations that define alcohol consumption as an acceptable behavior. This validates previous findings that peer influence is one of the strongest predictor of college student’s initiating and maintaining drinking behaviors (Borsari & Carey, 2006). Consuming alcohol seems to be a cultural norm in college as it is expected, approved of or encouraged in many social functions. Many students further hold the perception that they should experience and enjoy binge drinking before they assume adult responsibilities. The need to conform may also help explain this phenomenon. In addition, parental control is weak among college students who live away from home and coupled with the accessibility of alcoholic beverages in campuses reinforce drinking behaviors.
Gender Role Theory and Alcohol Consumption
There are gender differences in alcohol consumption. In some studies on gender and drinking, female consumption and initiation of alcoholic beverages occur at an older age compared to males and is associated with greater parental restraints (Orcutt & Schwabe, 2012). The stronger parental negative reinforcement on female risky behaviors such as drinking supports the existence of a gender gap. A cross-sectional study by Roberts (2012) using data from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) showed that more males consumed alcohol within the past 30 days compared to females. Of those who reported consumption, males had significantly more frequent drinking than females and at a higher total volume. More males than females were categorized as risky drinkers.
Double standards and stereotypes. Based on the gender role theory, the gender gap exists because society ascribes acceptable behaviors differently to men and women (Uy, Massoth & Gottdiener, 2013). The ability to tolerate high volumes of alcohol is considered an indicator of masculinity, as is competition with regard to risk-taking behaviors, drinking exploits, and aggression. Male stereotypes thus lead to the stigmatization of men who do not drink or can only drink in smaller amounts. Although women’s drinking has increased pointing to a decline in social restrictions in recent years, stereotypes of femininity persist (Rolfe, Orford & Dalton, 2009). Binge drinking and public drunkenness are considered unfeminine. At the same time, female drinking is associated with either promiscuity or vulnerability to sexual victimization. Such beliefs hold women responsible, in part, for whatever harm they experience as a result of intoxication because they are violating existing norms about drinking (Day, Gough & McFadden, 2004).
The media also promotes gendered alcohol consumption (Atkinson et al., 2011). Advertising targets men and women for different types of alcoholic beverages, e.g. beer for men and wine for women. At the same time, public health messages seem to overemphasize the effects of alcohol on women’s reproduction with other equally serious physiological effects categorized as “other health risks” (Day, Gough & McFadden, 2004; CDC, 2014). A survey of the gender role beliefs and attitudes of college students on alcohol consumption highlight the continued existence of double standards (de Visser & McDonnell, 2012). Female participants with the most egalitarian beliefs about male and female roles reported modifying their alcohol consumption patterns to fit to conform to gender stereotypes about drinking.
Practical Implications
Women’s drinking has practical implications on health promotion at the level of the population and educational institutions. There are also implications on the media and research.
Public health policy. Public health is concerned with developing and implementing organized efforts targeting the entire population or segments for the prevention of illness or injury and the promotion of both health and wellbeing (WHO, 2014). It is important for public health agencies to ensure gender equality in health messages targeting populations and the sub-population of college students. With regard to sexual violence, for instance, messages must emphasize that women who drink must not be blamed for unwanted sexual advances and forced sex (West, Plant & Scott, 2013). Although drinking is a risk factor, gender inequalities are at the root of sexual victimization because even women who do not drink experience sexual abuse. There must also be sufficient weight given to the effects of alcohol on women’s bodies and functioning other than reproduction to send the message that women’s health is valued not just in relation to their capacity to bear children.
Media. Addressing the glamorization of excessive alcohol consumption in television, movies, magazines, and other media is important because of the effects of modeling on the adoption of such behaviors. Media must portray the reality that binge drinking has negative effects on both women and men in order to reinforce moderation in the consumption of alcoholic beverages. To achieve this, messages must acknowledge that women also engage in binge drinking and that prevailing stereotypes influence men’s drinking behaviors (Day, Gough & McFadden, 2004).
Sociological research. Research plays an important role in the formulation of appropriate public health policies and in media interventions. Changing perceptions, behaviors, and attitudes to prevent excessive drinking and address stereotypes of female drinking requires the application of sociological theories and frameworks in public health. Research is also useful in shaping alternative media that promote gender equality and healthier behaviors with regard to drinking. The social model of health, for instance, suggests that there are social determinants to alcohol consumption (Poznyak, Saraceno & Obot, 2005). Sociology provides the tools in understanding this phenomenon.
Alcohol and Female College Students’ Health, Wellbeing, and Safety
There are two lines of evidence related to the specific hypothesis. The first is epidemiology that creates a picture of female college students’ health, wellbeing, and safety on the basis of statistics and possible explanations for these numbers. The second is medical research that aims to establish the differences in physiologic responses to alcohol among women and men.
Epidemiology. Along with their male counterparts, female college students who get drunk are at risk for injuries and death from physical assault and accidents including vehicular accidents caused by driving under the influence of alcohol. The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) (2013) reports that 1,825 students aged 18 to 24 die of such causes each year. About 600,000 college students suffer injuries from alcohol-related accidents, and nearly 700,000 are victims of assault from fellow students who are drunk. Compared to men, women’s likelihood in experiencing sexual victimization when intoxicated is higher by three to nine times (LaBrie et al., 2007; CDC, 2014). Female college freshmen are especially vulnerable with 31% reporting varying degrees of sexual aggression where around 50% of cases involved alcohol consumption. Around 400,000 college students also admit to having unprotected sexual encounters while intoxicated with one-fourth not remembering if intercourse was consensual or not (NIAAA, 2013). Such behaviors give rise to sexually-transmitted diseases, and women are especially at risk for unwanted pregnancies.
Possible biases. As with any statistical measurement, the figures cited above are subject to biases. First, the participants used in surveys may not be representative of college students in the United States. Second, there may not be an equal representation of women in the sample used. Third, there may be differences on the basis of ethnicity or race due to cultural differences with regard to alcohol consumption. Last, there are probable differences in figures depending on the instrument used for measurement and the research methodology employed (Dumas et al., 2013).
Alternative Explanations. Based on such biases, there might be no significant differences in alcohol consumption outcomes among male and female college students. At the same time, figures in relation to sexual aggression may not approximate reality as there are variations in numbers generated by different studies. However, sources are in agreement that there are gendered outcomes to drinking specifically with regard to sexual victimization and unwanted pregnancies because of biological differences and social stereotypes. Such agreement supports the validity of this claim.
Medical research findings. Medical research shows that although women consume less alcohol on the average than men, their biological make-up enables the greater absorption of alcohol (LaBrie et al., 2007). In addition, women’s bodies are conducive to the prolonged chemical breakdown and excretion of alcohol compared to men. These physiological facts may be the causes of the greater risk for heart disease, cancer and especially breast cancer, liver disease, and brain damage among women who drink compared to those who do not (CDC, 2014). At the same time, the risk for these diseases is higher among women who drink compared to their male counterparts. Alcohol consumption, especially binge drinking, also predisposes women to reproductive health risks unique to women including miscarriage, infertility, premature delivery, and stillbirth (CDC, 2012).
Possible biases. As biological techniques for studying the human body is continually evolving, more advanced methods may refute longstanding beliefs about the physiology of the female body in relation to alcohol consumption. In addition, genetic differences may yield different results among women based on race or ethnicity. There might also be other factors in the environment that impact women’s risks for the diseases mentioned above other than alcohol consumption.
Alternative explanations. As an effect of the above biases, drinking may not be a key factor to the greater likelihood of the development of serious and chronic illnesses among women. There might also be other undiscovered explanations for the difference in alcohol metabolism between women and men. However, such alternative explanations are improbable given the wealth of research spanning several decades that continue to support the basic assumptions about differences in male and female physiology with regard to alcohol intake. Rather, a refinement in methods has served to improve current understanding along the same lines of prior research (Squeglia et al., 2011).
Conclusion
The phenomenon of female college students who drink cannot be ignored. Social learning theories support the observational learning and reinforcement of alcohol consumption from family, peers, mass media, and other elements of the environment. However, double standards and stereotypes impact women’s experiences of drinking in a negative way. Men’s regard for women drinkers as either promiscuous or sexually vulnerable predisposes them to victimization even as they are also at risk for the same alcohol-related injuries or deaths faced by males. While both males and females are equally at risk for unprotected sex, women are at higher risks for sexually-transmitted infections and unwanted pregnancies. In addition, females are also at higher risks for several serious illnesses associated with alcohol intake as a result of biological differences that account for a longer duration of alcohol metabolism. Hence, sociological theories helped explain the phenomenon while both epidemiological data and medical research support the specific hypothesis that alcohol has a differential impact on women’s health, wellbeing, and safety. Although there were possible biases leading to alternative explanations, these are unlikely based on the state of available data.
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