Question 1
In the United States a man who intentionally has his penis and testicles cut off would be considered crazy by most people and in need of hormonal and psychological therapy by a small minority. Yet, though the hijras provoke ambivalence in many Indians, they are considered neither crazy nor candidates for therapeutic intervention. There are mythological and structural reasons for the reason.
The removal of the penis and the testicles among the hijras makes you a goddess who has the capacity to bless and curse. In the book “Neither Man or Woman”, the hijra community members are not considered as either a man or a woman but referred to as the third gender. The hijra community lives in India constituting the third gender status in the country (IMPORTANT SOURCE PLEASE READ). They are followers of Bahuchara Mata, a Hindu goddess (Anth316_15 1). They usually dress as women and their behaviors are for women but are not true women. They are associated with goddess especially after emasculation- have undergone the ceremony of complete removal of the penis and the testicles, and they believe the goddess has passed to them the procreative powers in the ceremony (Anth316_15 2).
Mythological reasons for emasculation among the hijra
The hijras worship Bahuchara Mata as mother goddess. As the myth goes, Bahuchara was a young girl who was travelling through a forest, together with a group of people when they were attacked by robbers. “..She was afraid they would violate her purity, that they would rape her, she took out her knife and cut off her breast and handed it to the robber ” (Anth316_15 1). The act lead to her death. Since she died defending her purity, she turned to a supernatural and became a goddess. Therefore the hijras believe that they are protected by the goddess in the ritual removal of her protruding sexual features, that is, her breast (Anth316_15 1). The goddess holds a lot of powers and is the main source of fertility, but more importantly the hijras believe that she always orders people to undergo emasculation so as to become her followers. This is one of the reasons in the myths of hijra that lead them to the complete removal of penis and testicles.
In the story Nanda tells another myth in the Hindu culture. The Hindu god, asked Shiva to build the world but Shiva later disappeared in the water for a long time. Rama had already built the world when Shiva resurfaced and he grabbed his erect penis and broke it and threw it on the earth where it fertilized it (Anth316_15 4). Just as the Shiva’s penis stopped to be a source of his fertility personally, but became a universal source, a person who has his penis cut in the Hindu culture is regarded highly, unlike in United States where one is most likely to be considered as emotionally and psychologically ill (Anth316_15 4). The person has the power to bless the newly wedded couple or a new born baby with fertility due to the supernatural powers they are believed to posses. Therefore the hijra, also refer to the myth for their reason to undergo the emasculation ritual.
Social/Structural reasons for emasculation among the hijra
The ritual of removal of the privates has significance among the Hindu culture. It is a process of rebirth which is also highly valued in the culture (Anth316_15 1). A person who has undergone a rebirth has given up all the desires of the flesh. Another reason for emasculation among the hijra is their cultural roles of performing in wedding ceremonies where they bless the couple with fertility during the birth of a boy. To perform in the ceremony, a true hijra, one who has undergone emasculation, was the only one who was allowed to perform. ‘Fake hijras’, those who still have their penis and the testicles, are abused and not paid when they are discovered. This reason pushed the hijras to undergo the ritual. Moreover, the true hijras were also involved in prostitution and kept long-term sexual relationships with men who they regarded as their ‘husbands’.
Question 2
How Does Hijra Community Provide both for Family and Occupational Structure?
The hijras live as a community. They may take up family roles in their community where some most engage in sexual relationships with men(IMPORTANT SOURCE PLEASE READ). These men are what they refer to as ‘husband’ as hijra live as women and even wear women clothing (Nanda 34). These ‘women’ usually take prostitutions as one of the main ways they make money for buying their essentials (Anth316_14 2).
The performances involve traditional folk music songs as well as songs derived from the Indian films. In addition most of these performances are done by the hijras who have been emasculated, as they are the ones who are believed to have the powers to bless and curse. For instance, in the event of a new birth of a child the hijra are usually called to bless the child, especially if he is a boy as boys are highly regarded in the Hindu culture. On arrival, the hijra check the baby’s genitalia to check if they are true male or female (Anth316_14 4). They then perform the ceremony of blessing the child with fertility and then they get paid. Also in the performances the hijra are given money but if that is not available they are given traditional commodities given to a woman such as sweets, sugar, cloth or sari.
However, these days they are taking up jobs in various places in supermarkets, shops, schools where they are called to bless the places. Sex with men is also considered as an occupation among the hijra(Anth316_14 2).
Question 3
Most American and Westerners believe in the idea of a dichotomous gender in life where one is either male or female and not likely to change. However among the hijra in India, there exists a third gender where one is neither a male nor female or can perform both roles in her life. Nanda has also discussed the Xanith of Oman who can perform both roles of a man or a woman (Anth316_13 10). They are treated as men and can perform all the duties the men do including worshipping with other men on the mosque but go out with women. They are also the only men who are allowed to see the bride’s face on the wedding night as they are considered not to be aroused by women. However, a Xanith can change to a complete man if he decides to marry and is able to consummate the marriage (Anth316_13 10). Their roles and status now completely change to that of a man. There are also the Alyas in the American society, Mohave, who were hermaphrodites in nature. They were treated as females and regarded highly. They were also married to men (Anth316_13 9).
A more complicated issue of the gender roles changing some times in one’s life is seen in the lives of the Kung tribe in the book in Nisa. The boys and girls play games together in Kung, unlike in many other societies where there were games for boys and others for girls (NISA_Reference). This reason causes the children to explore sexuality at avery early age and this is not considered as immoral as it is in many societies. In marriage both men and women have equal rights and roles. However, in most cases women are the main providers of food for their families which would be considered as a man’s role in many societies.
Among the Kung, the issue of dichotomous gender has little significance in terms of roles one plays in the family (NISA_Reference). Women are also given high standing in the society as they are believed to give life to a man through sex: a sexual denial to a man can cause him to die. This appears like a case of reversed roles in the contemporary American and Western societies where all genders had distinct roles and men normally had a high standing in the family and the society (Anth316_13 10). The major difference between the Kung and the Xanith of Oman and the Hijra of India is that the latter are caused to change their roles by their biological condition but to Kung it is just cultural way.
Works Cited
Anth316_13_v(c092). Print
Anth316_15_v(c092). Print
Anth316_15_v(c092). Print
Neither Man or Women (IMPORTANT SOURCE PLEASE READ). Print
NISA_Reference. Print
Nanda, Serena. "The Hijras of India: Cultural and Individual Dimensions of an Institutionalized Third Gender Role." Journal of Homosexuality 11.3-4 (1986): 35-54. Print
