History is full of wars, battles, rebellions and revolutions between peoples all across the globe for a plethora of reasons, both, ethical and unethical. When issues cannot be resolved and unrest begins to stir it is, fairly, inevitable, especially when that unrest involves a greater dominating force oppressing a more vulnerable one. This is when rebellion can occur and revolutions begin. One of the most famous revolutionary wars is, of course, the fight for American independence from British rule. But there was another revolution that took place, in the same era, where people rebelled against their oppression in order to gain their freedom and liberty; this land was Haiti. From 1791 to 1804 the Haitian slaves fought to earn their independence from their white oppressors (Munro and Walcott-Hackshaw 1). This long war, more than a decade, resulted in a Haitian victory. After reviewing the available research it becomes clear that the Haitian Revolution was essential to the independence of the enslaved men, women and children, but, also, set a precedent that would not be easily forgotten, which had some profound effects on the people across the world, including the United States.
More than a century before the revolution would take place. The French established their colony in Haiti calling it Saint-Domingue. The pleasant weather and tropical climate made it an ideal location for the farming of both sugar and coffee. The French plantations grew larger and larger and as the plantations grew so did the need for more and more slave labor; people from Sub-Saharan Africa made up the nationality of the bulk of the slaves. There was also an order of light skinned and dark skinned blacks who were free in the eyes of the French, but still did not have all of the same rights as the white people who ruled. The plantations flourished. By the middle part of the 18th century coffee and sugar had become the one of the most traded of commodities. Haitian plantations were providing 40% of the world’s sugar and 60% of the world’s coffee (Saylor Organization 1). The conditions that the slaves were living in was deplorable with no laws to protect them from abuse and maltreatment by the white slave masters, tensions began to rise. There were a number of small rebellions that were not so successful and many slaves made efforts to escape, but many were often caught and the punishments for running away were quite severe (Office of the Historian 1).
In order to fully understand the Haitian Revolution it is imperative to discuss the elements that contributed to the final straw that finally inspired the slaves of Haiti to revolt against their oppressors.
Numbers: Again as the plantations grew to meet the demands for their valued exports it required the keeping of more and more slaves. Prior to the revolution there were approximately, half of a million slaves held as property on Haiti. They outnumbered the white colonists, literally, ten to one (Saylor Organization 1-2).
Inspiration to Revolution: Both the American and French Revolutions were occurring in tandem with the unrest building in Haiti. They were inspired by these other nations who stood up to oppression, fought for freedom and toppled the regimes that were controlling them (Saylor Organization 2-3).
The Right to Vote: In Haiti the racial tensions did just exist between blacks and whites, but also among the dark and light skinned blacks as well. In 1791, the gens de coulour libres, which is the French name for the free blacks, had petitioned for the right to vote. In April of that year it was determined that the gen de coulour libres would be granted the right to vote. This, of course, did not include slaves. However, the continual disagreement and protest to that freedom directly contributed to coming rebellion (Saylor Organization 2-3).
Failed Rebellion: It was not long before rebellion broke out. Many slaves with the aid of free black leaders and the Maroons, which were the escaped slaves living in the hiding, who aided rebel forces and organized attacks against the colonists. Unfortunately, this initial rebellion did not end well for the slaves. The violence was stopped and the level of brutality used against the rebellious slaves only stoked the fire of greater rebellion (Saylor Organization 3).
It would not be long before another revolt broke-out, but this one would not be so easily subdued. Thousands of slaves attacked plantations, burned property and freed numerous slaves who would then join the movement. By September of 1791, the rebellion had enough strength to take the Capital, Port-au-Prince and burned another city, Le Cap to the ground. The French were offering the gen de coulour libres amnesty if they fought in favor of the French colonists; however, this only angered the slaves more and increased the number who joined their ranks. More than 6,000 troops were sent by France to quell the uprising. However, this did not have the immediate effect that had been hoped. By 1793 the relationship between Britain and France was strained and it would not be long before France declared war on Britain. With the French preoccupied, troops from Spain came to aid the rebellion. France offered slaves freedom in exchange for loyalty to France; but that did not fare well for them either. In 1794 the French government abolished slavery in Haiti (Saylor Organization 4-5).
One of the most significant leaders in the Haitian Revolution that was integral to the success of the revolution. François-Dominique Toussaint L’Ouverture was a former slave, who was highly influenced by the mentality of the Enlightenment era; the ideologies arguing for the equality of all men motivated his desire to rebel; he joined the revolution at the beginning in 1791 (Nicholson 89). He was very assertive and charismatic and he was essential to several of the negotiations with Spain bargaining for military supplies. By 1794 he was the commander of the largest unit of revolutionaries, which numbered more than 5,000. However, once the general emancipation had been passed L’Ouverture has gained what he joined to gain; the end of slavery in Haiti. He optioned to ally himself with the French government. L’Ouverture worked to repair the issues and end the fighting (Egerton 1). His shifting allegiance and the emancipation legislature had create a widening gap between the white colonist and the French Government; so much so, that the colonists encouraged Britain to invade the Saint-Domingue. The British efforts were ended by the gen de coulours libres. Another rift began to spread, not just between the white colonists and now freed blacks, but between the dark-skinned and light–skinned blacks for control of the Haiti (Saylor Organization 4).
This lead to a small civil war, called the War of Knives, between L’Ouverture, a dark-skinned black man, and Andre Rigaud, a light-skinned black man. Rigaud did not accept L’Ouverture control of Saint-Domingue. This ongoing struggle between those of differing skin color, which encouraged the idea that light skinned individuals are more elite than those who are darker would continue on for some time to come. However, in the War of Knives, it was L’Ouverture who was victorious and overcame Rigaud in 1799. At this point L’Ouverture was the uncontested ruler of Saint-Domingue, but as leader he wanted to end slavery throughout Hispaniola. In 1800 he invaded San-Domingo, formally a Spanish colony, today it is known as the Dominican Republic. In 1801 he declared all slaves free. A constitution was drafted outlining the rights of the people, which were based specifically on the constitution that were inspired by the French Revolution (Saylor Organization 4-5).
The Haitian Revolution did not just affect the people of Haiti but it had an impact on a number major nations. France, of course, was most affected and French leader, Napoleon Bonaparte, had ended hostilities with Britain in 1802 turned his attention back to Haiti. He sent 20,000 men to retake Saint-Domingue (Saylor Organization 4-5). L’Ouverture and his rebels were able to defeat the army, but could not recover from the losses. He was forced to surrender to the French in exchange for amnesty. Regardless L’Ouverture sent the tone for a movement that would not be easily eliminated (Munro and Walcott-Hackshaw 2-3). Bonaparte reestablished slavery in the colonies at Martinique, Sainte-Lucie and Tabago, but did not reinstate it in Saint-Domingue. Regardless Napoleon’s control was short lived. The emancipated slaves again revolted. Napolean's men were struck by an outbreak of yellow fever and many died. He then sent Vicomte de Rochambeau to lead the French Army in Saint-Domingue. His brutality, cruelty and extreme atrocities that he committed against the revolutionaries only increased the aggression from the rebel forces. It would be the final confrontation between Rochambeau and another leader of the rebel forces Jean-Jacques Dessalines, at the Battle of Vertieres in November of 1803, which marked the end of the Haitian Revolution. As of 1804 Haiti would be known as the Republic of Haiti (Saylor Organization 4).
While the revolution in Haiti had extreme effects on the powers involved, France, Britain and Spain. The United States was also affected by the Haitian Revolution. While the violence and rebellion was far away, its implications gained a visceral response, especially from white American slave owners (Girard 1). They feared that such an uprising could encourage the same behavior in the United States and were quick to send aid to Haiti to help the colonists to maintain control. While there were never any revolts as was seen in Haiti in the United States it may very well have bolster the anti-slavery sentiments of the abolitionist movement; all the same it would be a long time before American slaves would gain their freedom and even longer before they attained equality in the eyes of the law. Even famed founding father, who supported the French Revolution, was also a slave owner, at the time, he too worried about the potential for uprisings (Office of the Historian 1). As the revolution continued the United States changed sides and began to support the rebel forces. History would remember this revolution in Haiti was the first slave rebellion to ever succeed in favor of the slaves (Dunkel 1).
With slavery behind them, it was likely hoped that society would improve for all. Unfortunately, when the white colonists were disposed of, it was the gen de coulours libres who took over control. They perpetuated racial disparities between those free-born and educated blacks that were now the ruling class. The Haitian people were forced into a new kind of caste system. However, they took a chance and made a stand to end the atrocities of slavery and gain greater rights under the law. They stood up to their oppressors and took back their dignity, but more than 250,000 people had died over the more than a decade of fighting; this is a significant event that is worthy of recognition. One of the greatest legacies that have been left by the Haitian Revolutions is that they had a profound influence in the ending of the Atlantic slave trade (Saylor Organization 5).
Warfare, whether righteous or nefarious, whether justified or not, is an ugly reality of the human experience; suffering, destruction and death are inevitable. But when it comes to fighting against oppression, fighting for one’s rights and gaining the freedom that none should have the right to take away, war, rebellion and revolution become very likely. The Haitian slaves suffered nearly three centuries of imprisonment, cruelty and endless and thankless labor. This revolution changed more than just the lives on Haiti. It changed the thought regarding slavery as a trade, but also, as a genuine social issue. Americans began to worry about the potential for such a revolt on United States soil. It bolstered the fire behind the abolitionist movements, among whites and blacks, both free, escaped or still living in servitude. Slavery is one of the most detestable practices in the whole of human history and seeing that these slaves succeeded in gaining their freedom and changing the future of all of their descendents for all time. The Haitian Revolution is a pivotal and relevant event in world history that is often under-discussed, but should not be overlooked or forgotten.
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