Botkin and Kellar (2014) describe an ecosystem as “communities of organisms and their nonliving environment in which nutrients and other chemicals cycle and energy flow.” I have chosen the forests of Pennsylvania as a holistic ecosystem to examine. Pennsylvania has approximately 17 million acres of forest, making up 59% of this State. The predominant species associations are oak/hickory in the central and southern areas and Northern hardwood (including black cherry, maple and birch) in the north and north-west (Sustaining Penn’s Woods, 2001). The vast forest area contains mature ecosystems with the aforementioned tree species as the climax species. ...
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4-10. The various trophic levels present in the diagram are first, second and third trophic levels. Producers form the base of the first trophic level. The second trophic level contains the herbivores or the grazers that consume food from the first level, while the third trophic level contains the carnivores, which feed on the second level for their food . Producers are the organisms that convert the energy received from light into chemical energy, such as food and sugar through the process of photosynthesis. The common examples of producers are plants, algae, rice, wheat and corn. The first-order consumers or ...